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INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES 



AN IDEAL SCHOOL 



OR, LOOKi:Na FORWAED 



BY 

PRESTON W. SEARCH 

HONORARY FELLOv^ IN CLARK I'NIVERSITY ; SUPERINTENDENT 
OF SCHOOLS, WEST LIBERTY, OHIO, 1877-83 ', SIDNEY, OHIO, 

1883-88; PUEBLO, COLO., 1888-94; LOS ANGELES, 
CAL. , 1894-'95 ; HOLYOKE, MASS , 1896-99 



"Oh, that mine adversary had written a book." 



NEW YORK 

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 

1901 



(^5)"''^^ 
•S^^ 



THE LIBRARY OF 
(30NGf?ESS, 

Two Cor-ies Received 

NOV. 2 1901 

copvrioht entry 
6lASS CL-XXc No. 

// s-^z. 

COPY B. 



Copyright, 1901, 

Bt d. appleton and company. 



ElECTROTYPED 4ItD jfelfJBDJ * ", 
AT THE APPLETOI*- J*ReS>«„ ^J. ^. JVV, .* 



TO 

President G. STAXLEY HALL, 

AMERICA'S GREATEST EDUCATOR, 

AND TO HUNDREDS OF EARNEST COLLABORATORS, 

SOME HUMBLE, SOME BETTER KNOWN, IN DIVERSE SCHOOLS, 

WHOSE WORK HAS CONTRIBUTED TO MY OWN SUCCESS, 

THIS LITTLE WORK IN CONSTRUCTIVE PEDAGOGY 

IS APPRECIATIVELY DEDICATED. 



EDITOE'S PREFACE. 



In the original classification adopted for this series 
of books, educational criticism occupies the second 
place; it includes the works relating to educational 
reform, criticisms on the present system, and book's to 
a greater or less degree revolutionary in their tenden- 
cies. Some books of this class propose only what may 
be strictly called reform. The recommendations of 
other books, if carried out, would produce little less 
than a revolution in school matters. 

But all books written by earnest thip'''ers in the way 
of criticism on existing systems have their use in excit- 
ing thought in the minds of teachers who for the most 
part are following routine methods. It is not likely 
that more than five per cent of new experiments ini- 
tiated in education will succeed in establishing them- 
selves as of value to educational methods; the remain- 
ing ninety-five per cent will fail. It is so in new 
business ventures; even less than five per cent of new 
business ventures can be said to prove financial suc- 
cesses. But the five per cent of new experiments 
which succeed may add, and do add, enough of value 
to compensate for the waste involved in the other 
ninety-five per cent of experiments. 

vii 



viii AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

Even if we grant that of all criticisms and sugges- 
tions of reformers, only five per cent bring fruit in 
the form of experiments that prove anything either 
positive or negative, it still remains an important fact 
that criticisms and new experiments keep alive the work 
of education, just as in other matters. 

The reader of the book of criticism will generally 
come prepared to refute and discard one half of the 
suggestions made by the reformer. He has in his experi- 
ence — or he thinks that he has in his experience enough 
to demonstrate the futility of a large inajority of the 
suggestions, especially if the book of criticism covers a 
wide ground and attacks the existing methods of edu- 
cation all along the line. 

It is evident that every usage found in our schools 
can be attacked as well as defended. Take the matter 
of school buildings. It is known in every city and vil- 
lage that school buildings have improved vastly in the 
last thirty years, at least in respect to the amount of 
money invested in them. The talent of architects has 
been more freely employed in drawing up the plans, 
but, on the other hand, any one familiar with the subject 
will retort. Yet there does not seem to be any well- 
digested body of knowledge in regard to tlie lighting of 
the schoolroom. Take Chicago, take Boston, take 
any of our large cities, look at the school buildings 
that have been constructed in the past twenty years 
and see how many study rooms in them are lighted 
on one side only; and the side that is lighted often 
fronts the south, getting the sun between ten and two 
o'clock; or fronts the west, getting the sun between two 
and four o'clock; or the east in the morning, requiring 



EDITOR'S PREFACE. 



IX 



the window shades to be closed, and resulting in a dim 
side light for the pupils sitting farthest from the win- 
dow. Again, in the winter days, in cities and towns 
burning soft coal, the light from one side of the room 
is insufficient. The result is, that children farthest 
from the windows hold the books nearer the eyes, and 
very soon a near-sighted habit is contracted. School- 
rooms should be lighted from the back of the pupil as 
well as from the left side. 

Again, it is often recommended that school build- 
ings should be onl}^ one story in height. Strong argu- 
ments are brought forward for it; but the reply is 
equally in earnest, which says the air in the lower 
rooms of a building is not so pure as the air of the 
second or third story, and that the light on the 
ground floor is far inferior to the light of the upper 
stories. 

Even those who argue that all out-of-door air is 
purer, and that all air confined in the house is neces- 
sarily impure, are met with the argument, based on 
observation, that in malarious countries the night air 
out of doors is less wholesome than the air confined in 
the house. Experience on the Eomana Campagna, or 
on the lowlands of the South Atlantic section of our own 
country, proves this. 

Some people would have the school yard open as 
a playground for the children after school; but this 
measure is opposed on the ground that the child 
ought to get the thoughts of the school and the school 
building and the school yard entirely out of his head 
for at least sixteen hours of the day. If he has been 
in a school called a play-school, he will wish to vary 



X AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

his plays and games and wish different surroundings, 
and he ought to have them. 

Some of the reformers favour such a treatment of 
school architecture and school surroundings as would 
imply that the school is the single and sole social centre 
of the community. On the other hand, there are those 
who claim that the church and its auxiliarj- organiza- 
tions have a stronger claim to be the centre. x\nd 
those who have the political state most at heart will 
expect the public library, the town hall, the courts of 
law, or some other public institution to be the centre. 
A still larger number will claim that each of these great 
cardinal institutions — the church, the state, the school 
— have a reasonable claim to be in their turn, but inter- 
mittently, the centres of the citizens' life. It seems 
to these last-mentioned peo])le that the citizen is kept 
in his sanity and sweet reasonableness by this variety 
of institutions. Each one of the cardinal institutions 
has a great, a rational purpose, but it can claim only a 
share of the attention of the life of the civilized man. 

Passing to another subject, there is the question 
of class recitation, and the grading of schools. It is 
claimed on the one hand that the recitation class-exer- 
cise should occupy from twenty to forty minutes, accord- 
ing to the age of the pupil, and that the class is an 
instrument in the hands of a good teacher by which he 
can make an impression on each individual of his school, 
such as he could not make if the pupil recited by him- 
self and did not form with others a class. It is said, 
for instance, that one pupil after another reciting his 
lesson shows to his fellow-pupils that he lias mastered 
some thoughts and facts which they had failed to notice 



EDITOR'S PREFACE. xi 

in their preparation of the lesson; likewise that he has 
missed other thoughts and facts which they have mas- 
tered. A critical attention given during the recitation, 
therefore enables the pupil to observe the successes 
and failures of his fellows, and also to profit by the 
corrections and critical observations which the teacher 
offers. Each pupil, therefore, in a well-conducted 
recitation, views the lesson through the minds of all his 
fellow-pupils and also through the mind of the teacher, 
and thereby enlarges his own relatively feeble under- 
standing of the subject, and also arms him with critical 
attention for the points in the next lesson similar to 
those which he had missed in to-day's lesson. Instruc- 
tion by private tutor would be, according to this point 
of view, far less efficient than instruction in a large class 
conducted by a competent teacher. The teacher's 
view of the subject is not quite so easy for the pupil to 
grasp as the view offered by his fellow-pupil, but the 
pupil will arrive at a much broader view when he 
attains that of the teacher. On the other hand, the 
advocates of the ungraded school and of the private 
tutor claim that better results as to individuality are 
secured by their system. 

Again, as to what is desirable in the cultivation of 
individuality: there are two sides, two sets of reformers. 
One reformer insists on individuality, and means by it 
that the pupil as he is, with his peculiarities and limita- 
tions, his likes and dislikes, his prejudices and his 
reasonable conclusions, should be kept as he is, or even 
made more so — i. e., more peculiar. On the other 
hand, another reformer thinks that his school is valu- 
able because it assists the pupil to repress his narrow- 



xii AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

ness and weakness, which he brings from his heredity 
and from his merely natural environment, and learn to 
hold in check such peculiarities as are considered de- 
fects of character, while he should learn to put the force 
of his will upon realizing the good traits that he 
possesses. In other words, they claim that the school 
should do what it can to produce good citizenship 
according to a common type — good behaviour, civil 
manners, the virtues of industry and earnestness and 
kindness toward others, and such things. But upon the 
statement of this view, usually the persons who argue in 
behalf of individualism hasten to concede its rationality. 
They explain their position to mean only that they 
do not wish to have the pupil so graded and classified 
that he is not allowed to develop certain lines in his 
intellect and will in which he is unusually gifted. Then 
the party of the opposition accepts the amended state- 
ment. Individualism is good when it makes for the 
good of the community. But how can individualism 
be cultivated or increased? Certainly the individuality 
is strongest which knows best how to avail itself of the 
strength of the community — how to combine one's 
fellow-men in the interest of a great cause. Now, the 
school gives precisely the studies which enable the indi- 
vidual to combine with his fellow-men. Therefore, the 
school by so much enhances the individuality of its 
pupil. 

Again, one educational reformer wishes to modify 
the course of study and devote much more attention to 
botany or to zoology under the name of nature study; he 
wishes to have less time devoted to reading and writing 
and arithmetic. He has only to listen to hear a chorus 



EDITOR'S PREFACE. xiii 

of opposition to this. An opposite reformer tells him 
that it is better to study the feelings, thoughts, and 
deeds of the human race, as depicted in the lessons of 
the school readers, and to give a comparatively small 
portion of the school programme to botany or to zo- 
ology. He argues in behalf of this on the ground that 
a knowledge of human nature is most important to the 
future citizen. 

Another reformer argues that writing and drawing 
should be postponed until somewhere between the 
tenth and fifteenth year of life. He alleges that the 
brain tracts which have to do with the finger, hand, 
arm, eye, and tongue movements, and movements of 
the face, develop later. An opponent is ready with 
this reply: that while it is true that the areas that 
deal with accessory movements come later than those 
of the fundamental movements, yet that the former 
areas develop prenatally in the child and become active, 
some in a few weeks, others in a few months after birth, 
and are pretty fully developed by the third year of the 
child's life, and that he is positively hungry for exer- 
cises of the various accessory muscles and their corre- 
sponding brain tracts for at least two years before he 
enters the kindergarten. 

Another reformer claims that it is the chief business 
of the school to develop these small accessory brain 
tracts; still another reformer holds that the school 
should limit itself to the fundamental muscles, because 
the brain tracts used for the fundamental movements 
occupy a so much larger portion of the brain. But an 
opponent of the latter reformer immediately attacks 
this alleged ground on a question of fact, and says that 



xiv AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

the brain of man has a far greater proportion of its 
surface used for accessory muscles, and that the full 
arm movements, for instance, and the movements of the 
lower limbs, do not require so much brain as the move- 
ments of the muscles of the eyes and the adjoining 
muscles of the face. And still another opponent ob- 
jects altogether to the settling of the question of time 
and place of a branch of study on the ground that the 
brain tract is large or small. It calls attention to the 
fact that almost all education deals with inhibiting 
animal impulse or transmuting it by ethical impulse; 
and it hints, too, that the ablest investigators of the 
human brain think that all of the gray matter is devoted 
to inhibition, or, in other words, to action which forms 
new lines of activity out of the raw stuff of mere animal 
impulse and makes them to be civilized habits. It is 
clear on reflection that the child begins almost at birth 
to inhibit certain spontaneous actions, and that he 
gradually builds up an inhibited life in securing for 
himself that great network of customs and usages which 
etiquette, the vocation in life, the laws of the state, and 
the ordinances of religion demand. No wonder that 
the human brain has svicli a large development of cortex 
or gray matter if it is used for this purpose. 

Another reformer wishes to have department in- 
struction in the primary grades, say, with children of 
the eighth, ninth, and tenth year, and later. His heated 
opponent says that this would convert the ordinary 
elementary school into an orphan asylum; and he de- 
scribes the dreariness of the upper primary school of 
forty years ago, when a semi-Lancasterial plan prevailed 
and the children were all together in a large assembly 



EDITOR'S PREFACE. XV 

room and sent to special teachers in small recitation 
rooms. In some cases the children recited wholly to 
these assistant teachers, but they did not conduct their 
study under them, and there was a lack of that home 
feeling wliich should be preserved to some extent for 
several years, say until the twelfth year, in the elemen- 
tary school. 

Another objector urges the point that a struggle will 
result between the special teachers, each one wishing 
to absorb most of the time and intellect of the pupils 
for his or her specialty. Another person calls to mind 
tlie opening of the Quincy School in Boston in 1847, 
and the great humanizing that has resulted in methods 
of discipline in school by the adoption of the plan of 
having each room with its pupils under charge of a 
teacher who supervises both their work of preparation 
of the lessons, and also their work in recitation. On 
the other hand, a new advocate of the department sys- 
tem of teaching urges that it furnishes teachers who are 
expert each in his own branch. 

This alternate contention may follow throughout 
the entire lines of special methods and measures of 
school instruction, and such contention must be ad- 
mitted to be on the whole enlightening to the teacher 
who follows use and wont. He begins to arouse his 
critical faculties into activity and to think for himself, 
and to observe many defects of his own teaching and of 
the teaching of others that had entirely escaped his 
attention. 

It is well to enter upon the reading of books of edu- 
cational reform. Nothing is more stimulating to the 
teacher; but he should supplement this reading by a 



xvi AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

reading of the history of education, for it is only in 
the history of education that he sees the outcome of 
reforms and can understand their strong and weak 
points. Nearly all present practices that have become 
established have a history of trials and experiments, and 
one who studies their growth in the past is taking the 
best way to discover what reforms should be taken up 
as the next best step in the present. 

W. T. Haeris. 
Washington, D. C, August, 1901. 



INTEODUCTION. 



I HAVE carefully read the manuscript of this book 
with great and growing interest to the close. While 
some of the practical points it treats are beyond my 
ken, and while there are a few minor matters in which 
I differ from the author, it is, on the whole, a book I 
wish I could have written myself; and I can think of 
no single educational volume in the whole wide range 
of literature in this field that I believe so well calcu- 
lated to do so much good at the present time and which 
I could so heartily advise every teacher in the land, 
of whatever grade, to read and ponder. 

The author, who has had an unusually wide, varied, 
and successful experience, has deliberately laid aside 
the burden of administration, refused I know not how 
many attractive openings, and taken a year off to state, 
with more deliberation and completeness than before, 
the educational faith that is in him, and has done so 
in a way that is sure to place him before the public as 
the leader of individualism in the sub-collegiate grades 
— a movement comparable only with the work of Presi- 
dent Eliot in the collegiate stages of education. The 
work of each of these pioneers supplements and would 



xviii AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

be incomplete without that of the other, for each has 
been tunnelling the mountain from opposite sides, one 
working down and the other up the grades. Here they 
meet, and for the first time the full scope of the move- 
ment is plain, and the through line that is to short-cir- 
cuit and economize so many of the old ways is open. 

The change from the scholiocentric to the paidocen- 
tric standpoint is comparable not so much to that from 
the geocentric to the heliocentric view as to the refor- 
mation which made it plain that church, Bible, Sab- 
bath, etc., were made for man and not man for them. 
We who are in the midst of it can hardly realize the 
magnitude of the changes involved, which must be seen 
in historic perspective to reveal their epoch-making sig- 
nificance. Superintendent Search understands that 
true ideals are the most practical working methods, and 
has found many, if not most, of these embodied, feature 
by feature, in the schools of many cities and countries. 
Part of his work consists in gathering these items from 
where they lay scattered and ineffective, and combining 
them into a unitary working plan which might be real- 
ized wherever conditions favoured. Even if in its en- 
tirety it is realized nowhere, it should be a stimulus and 
inspiration everywhere. 

As not the least of its merits I count its fitness to 
polarize educational forces into conservative and pro- 
gressive, the healthiest and most vitalizing of all party 
divisions. Younger and abler men and women, who 
feel that the best is yet to come in education, because 
of their own power of faith and enthusiasm, are sure 
to applaud and adopt ; while those who are chiefly con- 
cerned that nothing the past has given be lost, will look 



INTRODUCTION. xix 

with some concern upon a prophet so clear-sighted and 
confident of a new pedagogic dispensation. Yet there 
is not a word of animosity, and criticism was never 
more amiable and even where most radical is most 
kindly and indeed almost regretful. 

Of the writer's absolute sincerity and depth of con- 
victions, of his honesty and readiness for utter self- 
effacement, if personal interest ever seems to militate 
against the advancement of his ideals, his career and 
his entire personality leave no shadow of doubt. His 
method is conservative, his spirit a happy combination 
of the suaviter in modo with the fortiter in re, and he 
is eminently a practical idealist — a rare combination of 
qualities seldom united. No one would be less disposed 
to attempt such reconstruction by revolutionary meth- 
ods, and none more contented with very gradual ap- 
proximation to his ideals. 

As we know more of child nature and the nascent 
periods of growth we shall be able to make adjustments 
more and more accurate and economic; but the general 
principles here laid down are basal for the new educa- 
tion, and their far-off fruitage will be seen in more 
completely developed and more diversified personali- 
ties, in broader conceptions of what education means, 
and in a correlation of educational forces of the home, 
church, and state, and in higher and sounder ideas of 
parenthood itself. (. Stanley Hall. 

Clark University, June, 1901. 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 



" Hitch your wagon to a star." (Emerson.) 

I BELIEVE in ideals, and in ideals which can not be 
easily reached; for the man who raises his ideals high- 
est is the one who lifts his work most. Therefore, I 
am not concerned that the things presented in this little 
constructive endeavour will not find bodily incorpora- 
tion in schools; for it is cross-fertilization and not 
grafting which has given us our richest varieties of 
fruits and flowers. This work is an attempt at spirit, 
not letter; at principle, not method. 

I do not come to this presentation with merely a 
theoretical knowledge of schools, but from the rich, 
active, versatile experience of one who has made a 
faithful attempt to solve for his own schools some of 
the great, burning questions of child life. A service 
as teacher for three years in the ungraded schools, as 
tutor in college, as teacher in the lower-grade schools 
and in the commercial school, as principal of a classical 
academy and normal school, as specialist in and prin- 
cipal of a high school, as supervisor of a large system 
of evening schools, as superintendent in the village, 
the town, the smaller city, and the larger city schools, 



XXll 



AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 



in every case with rare opportuuity for experimental 
endeavour, supplemented with wide observation in every 
part of the country, entitles me to speak with some 
confidence, and I trust with acceptance, concerning re- 
forms most needed in the schools of the day. 

The man who once presents his ideals to the world 
makes his own life work difficult; for he is ever after- 
ward, more than other men, measured by these same 
standards, the realization of which conditions limit. 
Under such circumstances, it is best for him to offer 
freely the accumulations of hard-earned experience and 
long years of toil in order that others may carry for- 
ward the work which an impatient world would fain 
deny him. It is also true that an expressed ideal soon 
loses its original identity, working its way often uncon- 
sciously into the products of others, who perhaps were 
hostile to its original utterance. It is in this way the 
world moves forward. Evolution appropriates as its 
own everything which can enrich ; but no one factor can 
be better expended than to be thus absorbed. It is per- 
haps well that it is so. 

That these ideals may not seem beyond practical 
application, I have attempted to illustrate each point 
as presented by citations from the actual experiences 
of schools. A long, active, personal experience in ex- 
ceedingly rich fields, a wide observation of the best 
schools in every part of the land, and an accumulation 
of data perhaps in kind not the possession of any other 
person, enable me to do this a hundred times beyond 
the limits of these pages. There is scarcely a single 
feature of all these ideals presented, no matter how 
inaccessible they may seem, which is not supported by 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE. xxiii 

something tested and proven, to a greater or less de- 
gree, in the experience of schools. If these fragments 
of success can be found, no matter how scattered, 
then an ideal school is the direct product of their co- 
ordination in a single system. If only one teacher 
can reach the results herein described, then the pos- 
sibilities of the whole plan are completely demon- 
strated. 

The ideal school will never be the product of any 
one person; nor is this little work in exposition. The 
treasured contributions of a still living past and the 
willing co-operation of many collaborators in various 
parts of the country have been freely utilized. To these 
earnest associates, so closely related to my own work, 
but whose names are too many for mention, I desire 
to express my personal appreciation and indebtedness. 
If any one thing has ever made my own work success- 
ful, it has been the noble co-operation of a great coterie 
of workers whose zeal for better things grows with the 
passing years. 

My thanks are esj)ecially due to President G. Stanley 
Hall for his great interest in urging the production of 
this work, and to Dr. A. F. Chamberlain and Librarian 
L. N. Wilson for helpful kindness in proof-readings 
during the author's absence in Europe. 

The questions presented in the discussions of this 
work are largely those which have come to my table 
in earnest inquiries from all over the country. They 
type very well practical difficulties concerning which, 
in an enormous correspondence, and by lecture audi- 
ences, I have been repeatedly asked to give information; 
and they are offered largely in the personal form in 



xxiv AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

which they have appeared. Perhaps their discussion 
here may be helpful. 

If this discussion seems to be over-critical, I trust 
it will be remembered the criticism largely applies to 
my own work as well as that of others. I love the 
public schools, in the service of which my life has been 
spent; but my experience with the one hundred thou- 
sand boys and girls who have been under my charge, 
supplemented by a wide observation of schools in almost 
every state of the Union, tells me there are radical 
defects in our school practices which must be remedied. 
The best things in education are not yet. It is in this 
spirit, which comprehends my own responsibility as well 
as that of others, that this little attempt in construc- 
tion is offered. May I not hope to be understood? 

Preston W. Search. 
Clark University, Worcester, Mass. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER PAGE 

Editor's Preface vii 

Introduction by President G. Stanley Hall . xvii 

Author's Preface xxi 

I. — The Proposition Stated — Introductory Queries 1 

II. — The Losses of the School 11 

III. — The Losses of the School {continued) — The 

Health of School Children .... 38 

IV. — Fundamentals in planning a School ... 58 

V, — The School Plant 74 

VI. — The Scope of the School 104 

VII. — The Course of Study Ill 

VIII. — Individual Variations ^x'^ 158 

IX, — Illustrative Methods 177 

X. — Applicability to Different Grades of Instruc- 
tion 240 

XL — The Child's Opportunity traced through the 

School 273 

XII. — The Function op the Teacher .... 289 

XIII. — The Re-enforcement of Evolution . . . 307 

XIV. — Municipal Difficulties and Organization . . 316 

XV. — Something for the Physicians to think about . 332 

XVI. — The Ethical Basis of the School . . . 344 

XVII. — In Conclusion 353 



AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 



CHAPTEE I. 

THE PKOPOSITION STATED INTRODUCTORY QUERIES. 

At the very beginning of this conference I wish to 
advance a fundamental proposition : we must recon- 
struct our educational system. Not that it has not ac- 
complished much good in the past, but because the time 
has come when we should rise to something better. "We 
have been travelling at a rapid rate in these latter days 
in science, invention, economics, and art. The school- 
man must keep pace with the world's demands. His 
methods have been too passive, too profligate, and too 
inert. The school must be built fundamentally for the 
pupil. It must be more democratic and afford coequal 
opportunity to all children. It must accord with Na- 
ture. It must conduct its work by the active method. 
It must recognise heredity, environment, innate faculty 
and trend, and give opportunity for spontaneity, crea- 
tion, choice, and self-government. It must depart from 
Uniform requirement and recognise the supreme impor- 
tance of an education of differences. There must be the 
removal of all false incentive and the substitution of 
the performance of work from pure love for work and 
because it is right. The school must be the promoter 

1 



2 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

of health — physical, intellectual, and moral. (Jiven its 
constituency, it must be responsible for results. The 
product of the school must be the free, enkindled soul, 
alive to observation, trained to habits of industry, 
original inquiry, and artistic enjoyment — a creator in 
tlie world of action — a self-governing, independent- 
thinking, and wealth-contributing citizen. 

Has the school been built fundamentally for the 
individual pupil? It must be admitted that it has not 
been. The central principle in gradation has been that 
the child must fit the school and not the school fit the 
child. The work has been planned for the class, con- 
ducted for the class, with promotions made at class in- 
tervals. The thought that the child is a personal unit, 
potential in his individuality and fitness for a distinc- 
tive mission in life, has to no considerable extent ever 
entered into the constructive policy and plans of schools. 
The school can not rise to its best until it fits the 
individual needs of each and every pupil, and these 
needs are not merely the superficial ones of the pres- 
ent, but they take hold of a futurity w^herein man is 
never so strong as when, in science, invention, litera- 
ture, or art, he has created something of value because 
of his strength as an individual. 

Has the school been sufficiently democratic? It has 
not been. Built for an impossible factor wherein an 
imaginary average pupil was the fallacious unit, it has 
failed to give just opportunity to either the " born 
long " or the " born short." The bright, capable pupil 
has been retarded in his progress, has spent time in life- 
less reviews and valueless repetition of lessons, and has 
had his ambition stunted; while the slow-going pupil, 



THE PROPOSITION STATED. 3 

who often fruits best in later life, lias been hurried 
forward at an unnatural pace, plunged prematurely 
into difficulties he does not understand, to flounder, to 
repeat grades, and to be discouraged, when education 
should have been to him Just opportunity proportionate 
to his working ability. The school holds its constitu- 
ency by compulsory attendance and not primarily by 
merit; but it fails to give adequate advancement, as is 
shown by the preponderance of numbers * in the lower 
grades over those in the higher grades. Not, perhaps, 
in intention, but in practice, it conserves the interests 
of the aristocracy of the few who can rather than the 
democracy of the many who may. It is not built for 
the masses, to whom it should grant wide, differen- 
tiated, and fruitful opportunity. To be the school of a 
democratic people, it must plan for the strong and the 
weak, the rapid and the slow, the wealthy and the poor, 
the one whose whole energies may be given to the school 
and the one who must carry responsibilities at home. 
To be anything else, to crowd out the unfortunate 
in life and those of lesser degree in order that the. 
privileged few may monopolize the benefits of educa- 
tion, is a direct perversion of the people's money. The 
school must open its doors to all classes and at all hours, 
and open them wide. 

Has the school placed its practices in accord with 
Nature? Not to any considerable extent. " The his- 
tory of human thought," says Compayre, " shows that 
there has ever been a tendency to separate form from 
content, or letter from spirit, and as constahf a pre- 

* Table of Ages, Chaptei* II. 



4 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

dilection for form or letter, as distinguished from con- 
tent or spirit," The child has gained his glimpses of 
Nature through the eyes of others. He sees " as 
through a glass darkly/' and not "face to face." "Study 
Nature in the house, and when you go out you canna 
find her." The primary school begins its work with dry, 
meaningless abstractions. It is taken for granted that 
the child can do little until he can read — until he is 
equipped with the tools for second-hand acquisition. 
His after-education contains much of this same proce- 
dure — form before content, letter before spirit, nomen- 
clature before idea, some one else's interpretation in- 
stead of personal knowledge, and attempt at expression 
of that which is not yet conceived. " Things! things! " 
exclaims Eousseau, " I shall never tire of saying that 
we ascribe too much importance to words. With our 
babbling education we make only babblers." 

Again, are the methods of the school natural? Is 
there recognition of the great fundamental nascent 
periods in child growth? Is there training to keen, 
alert observation, to logical thinking and to correct ex- 
pression? Does the school connect the innate germ of 
love for the beautiful and of wonder at the mysterious 
with the inspired and continuous student of the future? 
Where are the method of Socrates, the philosophy of 
Plato and Aristotle, and the practices of Pcstalozzi? 

Are the methods of the school sufficiently based on 
activity? They are not. There is too much repetition, 
too much of waiting for others to catch up, too much 
time lost while others are reciting. The ordinary form 
of recitation is too expensive. There is too much loss 
of time, dissipation of energy, and trying on of misfit 



THE PROPOSITION STATED. 5 

clothes. It is this more than any one thing which has 
driven the pupil to the outside preparation of lessons. 
Within school the programme is all recitation; there is 
little time for the pupils to study. The teacher is too 
much a hearer of lessons. High art in teaching requires 
that the instructor should be submerged and the school 
be a place where, under unconscious direction and in- 
spiration, the pupil shall find results awaiting his 
own pleasurable investigations and personal creation. 
There may be virtue of a kind in the class room where 
the teacher carefully plans all the steps of procedure 
and insists on the performance of work according to her 
ideals; but, in educative worth, it can not compare with 
that where the pupil feels the glow which comes from 
personal discovery and accomplishment. It is a little 
thing to be an imitator; a great thing to be a creator. 
The father who insists on his son holding the board 
while he drives the nail may drive the nail well, but 
he who holds the board while the son drives the nail 
does better. The nail may not be so well driven, but 
he educates the son. Even so in the school room the 
child must be permitted to do his own work. Dead 
time must give place to active endeavour. The child 
must be a discoverer, an originator, a creator. He must 
be permitted to drive the nail. 

Heredity, what place has it in the construction of 
school policies? Is there recognition of the fact that 
the child is more than post-natal, and that which Nature 
has been centuries in forming can not be changed in a 
day? The elements which constitute the personal equa- 
tion are not superficial, but " extend from 'way back," 
and therefore must fundamentally determine the base 



6 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

of approacli in the education of the child. Not only in 
his inherited tendencies to weaknesses does the child 
appeal to us for sympathetic training, but his virtues 
and strengths are more than appear on the surface. 
The child is nearer God than is the man. Being has 
its past as well as its future. Evolution does not lift 
all its products equally. Hence, he who builds a graded 
course of instruction, thinking of origin as being only 
five or ten years back, does violence to an heredity 
which knows no uniformity and offers mankind the 
most in that the germs of immortality are not all 
alike. 

Then, too, environment presents its conditioning 
factors. Side by side in the same school room sit the 
wealthy and the poor, the child well fed and the one 
who seldom knows an adequate meal, the well-clothed 
and the one exposed to the storm, the child who has 
had normal hours of sleep and the one who has been 
hvirried from his bed to sell the morning papers or to 
do other work, hours before school, the child of luxury 
and the one of heavy responsibilities at home, the one 
who is surrounded with culture and the one who has 
little opportunity even for reading at home, the child 
of growing strength and the one of increasing weakness, 
the sick and the well. Can any system of uniform re- 
quirement stand before the bar of justice and equity 
when charged with a responsibility of this kind? Who 
made the schoolman so omniscient and omnipotent 
that he can justly take into consideration all these con- 
ditioning elements of heredity and environment when 
he sits down to measvire mind by a scale of per cents 
or other mechanical nomenclature, which too often 



THE PROPOSITION STATED. Y 

measures himself and not the pupil whose infinitude he 
has failed to comprehend? 

The tests of an educational system are not those 
which obtain in the class examination, but in the op- 
portunity afforded for the spontaneous development of 
the ego which can not be measured. Undoubtedly there 
are certain favouring elements of health and balance 
which are the same for all pupils; but that all should 
have the same loves, the same bent, and the same 
heights to climb, is an educational absurdity. Great 
tilings in literature, in scientific discovery, and in in- 
vention, do not come where men move in solid phalanx, 
but are found along the heights where the individuals 
tread. Indeed, as a rule, the inventors have not come 
up through the scliools. There is that born in the child 
which determines his predilection, and the great 
teacher is he who early discovers the innate germ and 
gives it opportunity for expression. Soul is not the 
product of the school. 

We need, then, a radical departure from the unj- 
formitization practised so much in schools. We need 
an education that will develop differences and conserve 
individuality. This will not render school work easy; it 
makes it hard and difficult, but it will certainly be more 
scientific. 

It is often argued that there is so much of total 
depravity by inheritance that the child needs require- 
ment and foreign incentive. Probably that which the 
roul inherits is not depravity, but liability to weakness. 
The soul itself bears the impress of divinity, and is born 
for great things. Zuchmann says, " If the babe could 

hear its mother sing in perfect voice, every child would 
3 



8 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

be a singer." Even so there is that in every child 
M'hich will burst forth into life and beauty under the 
right favouring nurture; sometimes it will, any way. 
It is a mistake to think the child has no innate love for 
beauty, or concord or symmetry. The germs may be in 
embryo, or they may sleep, but they will respond to 
sunshine and culture. So, in the school, the soul will 
awaken to the beauty in Nature, the noble in literature, 
the heroic in history, the wonderful in science, and 
the delightful in art, and by related interests to other 
things of secondary importance. The discovery of ap- 
proach may sometimes be difficult, but the teacher can 
afford to run the whole gamut of possibilities in order 
to find the right key to interest; and through that door 
should be the entrance to other treasure-houses be- 
yond. To do this to any considerable extent, under 
the stress and strain of uniformity, is impossible; but 
there will never be a thorough test of the value of in- 
terest as an educating medium imtil it is done. The 
preciousness of a single soul, awakened from dormancy 
unto life, is worth more than the mechanical excellence 
of a world of schools. 

Have the schools been conservative of the health of 
school children? It must bo admitted that they have 
not been. It seemed to me the finest-looking lot of 
school children I ever saw was in the city of Salt Lake. 
This was immediately after the inauguration of the 
public system in that city. Statistics arc abundant to 
show the immense amount of physical impairment, and 
sometimes wreckage, attendant upon the pursuit of an 
education. If education is to mean anything, it must 
mean health; and unless the public schools are pro- 



THE PROPOSITION STATED. 9 

moters of health, they are fundamentally wrong. Says 
President G. Stanley Hall: " Now, if this tremendous 
school engine, in which everybody believes with a 
catholic consensus of belief perhaps never before at- 
tained, is in the least degree tending to deteriorate 
mankind physically, it is bad. Knowledge bought at 
the expense of health, which is wholeness or holiness 
itself in its highest aspect, is not worth what it costs. 
Health conditions all the highest joys of life, means 
full maturity, national prosperity. ]\Iay we not rever- 
ently ask. What shall it profit a child if he gain the 
whole world of knowledge and lose his health, or what 
shall he give in exchange for his health?" 

Shall the school be held responsible for results? 
Most certainly. If it is found that myopia, hollow 
chests, spinal curvature, heart defects, and nervous and 
digestive diseases increase in schools, as expert exami- 
nations find to be the case, who is at fault? If a child 
continues a dullard, a drone, or a dunce, what shall be 
said of the person who has been employed to set the 
machine7-y of his life in operation? More than that, 
is there not responsibility for the moral elevation of 
those with whom the teacher lives day after day? Most 
certainly there is. Fenelon had a similar task in his 
education of the irascible Duke of Burgundy. Are the 
children in the schools inspired with love for study? 
Do they love attendance upon a good lecture? Are they 
continuous students after they leave school? Are they 
trustworthy in their self-government? The school can 
not evade responsibility any more than can the physi- 
cian who assumes charge of the sick in the early stage 
of disease. It must be the mission of the school to pro- 



10 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

mote health, to inspire to action, to inculcate a love for 
noble things, and to lift to the level of higher living. 
The card report sent from the school to the home is 
often a measure more of the teacher than of the child. 
That better results may obtain, there must be a 
radical reconstruction of schools. Happily, the dawn of 
the new era does not seem very far off. The enormous 
interest the better teachers of America are taking in 
child study, the many departures here and there from 
traditional and uniform method, an awakening con- 
science within and without the schools, the leavening in- 
fluence of earnest attempts at something higher — these 
are all prophetic of the early coming of better things. 
The school of the twentieth century will be based on a 
better knowledge of children, and will mark a new era 
in education. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE LOSSES OF THE SCHOOL. 

It will probably be well to preface our constructive 
presentation by a closer examination into the condition 
of the present school, so that we may avoid many of its 
evils in our ideal school. Somehow there is such a uni- 
versal tendency to believe in that which we now have, 
attacks on its alleged merits are so zealously repelled 
by the executors of past educational estates, the school 
of mechanical excellence looks so well on its sur- 
face and runs with so little friction, that it is not easy 
to gain serious attention to that which is more complex 
and perhaps calls for more careful study and adminis- 
tration. It is said that the great dynamos at Niagara, 
which supply power for the entire city of Buffalo and 
adjacent places, run easily and noiselessly, and that only 
four men are required for their care. But smoothness 
of running and serenity are not the tests of a school 
of high ideals. Such a school may not look so well on 
the surface. It does not plan for immediate results. 
It will not run itself. Scientific education is no au- 
tomaton process, but requires endless adaptation, read- 
justment, and discovery. Unquestionably the school of 
individual differentiation will be more complex and 
more difficult to conduct than the one of Procrustean 

11 



12 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

method. It is infinitely harder to adapt one school to 
the needs of a thousand pupils than to adapt one thou- 
sand pupils to a single plan. 

Concerning the inadequacies of the graded school 
system, let us call up the testimony of a few competent 
witnesses. 

In 1880 Dr. Washington Gladden made a suggestive 
investigation * concerning the school training of one 
hundred representative successful men in the city of 
Springfield, Massachusetts. The one hundred men in- 
cluded " bank presidents, insurance company presidents, 
chief managers of railroads, heads of the most impor- 
tant manufacturing companies, leading merchants, lead- 
ing lawyers and physicians, chief editors, and principals 
of schools." Letter inquiries were addressed to these 
persons, asking " Whether your home during the first 
fifteen years of your life was on a farm or in a village' 
or city? " 

Of the 100 persons so addressed, 89 made replies. 
The reports of these 89 persons showed that 12 spent 
the first fifteen years in the city, 12 in the village, and 
64 on the farm; hut of the 21 who lived in villages and 
towns, 6 were practically farmer boys, for they lived in 
small villages or on the outskirts of cities. Seventy 
had such training as the farming boy usually received, f 



* St. Nicholas, March, 1880. 

f The w7-iter has frequently asked approximately the same 
question of large and representative gatherings of educators, to 
find the same remarkable testimony that more than two thirds of 
these leaders have come up through the rigorous processes of the 
unconventional rural school. The lives of America's college presi- 
dents present even more corroborative evidence of the ungraded 



THE LOSSES OP THE SCHOOL. 13 

To this implied criticism of Dr. Gladden the school- 
men have made a weak defence, their principal argu- 
ment being that this study brought out the differences 
in conditions of life as the great determining factor. 
This only goes to show the lack of adjustment of schools 
to the needs of changing times. Education to be sci- 
entific must preserve to the world the great fundamental 
processes which all evolution has shown to be necessary 
for the best culture of vigorous life. 

President David Starr Jordan, in his vigorous utter- 
ances from Stanford University, has been doing much 
toward the reconstruction of schools. Says he: * 

" There is no virtue in educational systems unless 
the system meets the needs of the individual. It is not 
the ideal man, or the average man, who is to be 
trained; it is the particular man; as the forces of Na- 
ture have made him. His own qualities determine his 
needs. ' A child is better unborn than untaught/ A 
child is still untaught, if by his teaching we have not 
emphasized his individual character, if we have not 
strengthened his will and its guide and guardian — the 
mind. . . . All education must be individual, fitted to 
individual needs. That which is not is unworthy of the 
name. A misfit education is no education at all. The 
rewards of investigation, the pleasures of high think- 
ing, the charms of harmony, have never yet been for the 
multitude. To the multitude they must be accessible 
in the future. ... If we are to make men and women 
out of boys and girls, it will be as individuals and not 

school's virility. Surely, soil und rough-shod opportunity have 
well done their work in the making of men. 
* Jordan's Care and Culture of Men. 



14 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

as c-lasses. The best field of corn is that in which the 
individual stalks are most strong and most fruitful. 
Class legislation has always proved pernicious and in- 
effective, whether in the university or in a state. The 
strongest nation is that in which the individual man 
is most helpful and most independent. The best school 
is that which exists for the individual pupil." 

President Eliot, in his admirable article on The 
Function of Education in Democratic Society,* has 
said: 

" Another important function of the public school in 
a democracy is the discovery and development of the gift 
or capacity of each individual child. This discovery 
should be made at the earliest possible age, and, once 
made, should always influence, and sometimes deter- 
mine, the education of the individual. It is for the in- 
terest of society to make the most of every useful gift 
or faculty which any member may fortunately possess, 
and it is one of the main advantages of fluent and mo- 
bile society that it is more likely than any other society 
to secure the fruition of individual capacities. To make 
the most of any individual's peculiar power, it is impor- 
tant to discover it early, and then train it continuously 
and assiduously. It is wonderful what apparently small 
personal gifts may become the means of conspicuous 
service or achievement, if only they get discovered, 
trained, and applied. In the ideal democratic school no 
two children would follow the same course of study or. 
have the same tasks, except that they would all need 
to learn the use of the elementary tools of education — • 

* Eliot's Educalioiial Rcfortn. p. 408. 



THE LOSSES OF TEE SCHOOL. 15 

/' 

reading, writing, and ciphering. The different children 
would hardly have any identical needs. There might 
be a minimum standard of attainment in every branch 
of study, but no maximum. The perception or discov- 
ery of the individual gift or capacity would often be 
effected in the elementary school, but more generally 
in the secondary; and the making of these discoveries 
should be held one of the most important parts of the 
teacher's work. The vague desire for equality in a 
democracy has made great mischief in democratic 
schools. There is no such thing as equality of gifts, or 
powers, or faculties, among either children or adults. 
On the contrary, there is the utmost diversity; and edu- 
cation and all the experiences of life increase these 
diversities, because the school, and the earning of a 
livelihood, and the reaction of the individual upon his 
surroundings, all tend strongly to magnify innate diver- 
sities. The pretended democratic school with an in- 
flexible programme is fighting not only against Nature, 
but the interests of democratic society. Flexibility of 
programme should begin in the elementary school years 
before the period of secondary education is reached. 
There should be some choice of subjects of study by ten 
years of age, and much variety by fifteen years of age. 
On the other hand, the programmes of elementary as 
well as secondary schools should represent thoroughly 
the chief divisions of knowledge — namely, language and 
literature, mathematics, natural science, and history, 
besides drawing, manual work, and music. If school 
programmes fail to represent the main varieties of intel- 
lectual activity, they will not afford the means of discov- 
ering the individual gifts and tendencies of the pupils." 



16 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

Hold the public schools, as they are largely consti- 
tuted, up before this comprehensive mirror, and what 
do we see? 

Dr. Edward Everett Hale remarks, " My experience 
with schools and with the college teaches me to dis- 
trust all the mechanisms of education." * And again: 
" I do not lay much stress on the teacher. A great 
teacher, who will inspire you, is certainly a gxeat 
blessing." f 

Says Prof. John Dewey, J " The school is not the 
place where the child lives," and, " There is very little 
place in the traditional school for the child to work." 

The Forum articles by Dr. J. M. Eice, on the public 
schools of the United States, have contained some pro- 
found criticisms which deserve the careful considera- 
tion of every person interested in the improvement of 
existing methods of education. 

Dr. E. Stuver, in making an investigation * as to 
the values in our present system of education as pre- 
sented in the requested opinions of one hundred and 
fifty of our leading educators and physicians, said con- 
cerning those who expressed themselves on this particu- 
lar point: "Twenty-nine out of sixty-three educators, 
and thirty out of thirty-five physicians, do not think our 
present course of study best calculated to develop the 
highest physical and intellectual powers of the child. 
Eighteen educators and one physician are doubtful." 

* Hale's How I was Educated, 
t Hale's What Career? 

J Dewey's The School and Society. 

* Stuver's How does our School System influence the Health 
and Development of the Child '{ 



THE LOSSES OF THE SCHOOL. . 17 

" It is not strange/' says Dr. Hall,* " that so grand 
an institution should become of itself an object of love, 
pride, and inspiration; that there should be rivalry in 
mechanical excellences like attendance, punctuality, 
order, percentages, etc.; that in Austria and Kussia 
teachers should wear uniforms as government officials; 
that reformers should be feared; that there should 
sometimes be tyranny and jobbery. Especially here, 
where supervision itself is little skilled, and where one 
fourth of our teachers leave the business each year, there 
is peculiar danger that the individual pupil will be sub- 
ordinated to the machine, for this is the chief vice of 
the 'prentice and of bad teachers generally." 

To these criticisms, made by earnest men in kindly 
spirit, the school people have made replies without ex- 
haustive examination. Now, let us see if their defence 
is well founded. 

Attention is called to the table on page 19, entitled 
A Study of School Ages. It is furnished by a super- 
intendent in a fairly representative city, and consti- 
tutes a section which, by the Board of Education, v/as 
ordered stricken out of the superintendent's annual re- 
port, because it was supposed to reflect on the schools 
of that city. 

A glance at the table will show that it represents 
a complete working school system of all grades from 
the kindergarten through the high school, and includes 
5,801 pupils. The number of pupils of each year of 
age is shown for every grade with totals. Theoreti- 
cally, in a school supposed to be graded, if a child 

* Pedagogical Seminary, June, 1891. 



18 . AN IDEAL SCHOOL, 

enters school at five years of age, he should reach 
the second grade at six, the third grade at seven, 
the fourth grade at eight, the fifth grade at nine, the 
sixth grade at ten, the seventh grade at eleven, the 
eighth grade at twelve, the ninth grade at thirteen, the 
high school at fourteen, and he should graduate from 
the high school at the end of the four years' course at 
nineteen; or, at least, he should not be more than one 
year older in entering any given grade than is indicated 
by the respective ages stated. Practically he is noth- 
ing of the kind, as the study will show. In fact, the 
pupils are considerably older. 

In this table the full-faced figures indicate the num- 
ber of pupils of normal age; the figures to the right of 
these full-faced figures may be said to indicate pupils 
over age; figures to the left, pupils under age. 

For instance, in grade four, 85 pupils are of normal 
age; 11 are one year under age; 3 are eight years over 
age; 2 plus 3, or 5, are seven years over age; 24 plus 5, 
or 29, are six years over age; 56 plus 29, or 85, are 
five years over age; Gl plus 85, or 116, are four years 
over age; 96 plus 116, or 212, are three years over age; 
139 plus 212, or 381, are two years over age; 178 plus 
381, or 559, are one year over age. In the same way 
figures are given for each of the other grades. 

A careful study of this table presents the following 
serious reflections: 

1. Of the 5,801 pupils comprehended in this study, 
1,254 (22 per cent) are of normal age for entering 
the various grades, 172 are one year under age, 3 are 
two years under age; 4,372 (75 per cent) are one year 
over proper entering age, 2,456 (43 per cent) are two 



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20 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

years over age, 1,20-1 (31 per cent) are three years 
over age, 518 (9 per cent) are four years over age, 235 
(4 per cent) are five years over age, 91 are six years over 
age, 28 are seven years over age, 8 are eight years over 
age, and 1 is eleven years over age. Some minor cor- 
rections should perhaps be applied to these figures, as 
will be shown later on. 

2. It will be observed that 41 per cent of these 
pupils enter the first grade at under six years of age 
(the normal age for entering this school's first grade 
is five); 29 per cent enter the second grade at under 
seven; 13 per cent, the third grade at under eight; 14.5 
per cent, the fourth grade at under nine; 12 per cent, 
the fifth grade at under ten; 16 per cent, the sixth grade 
at under eleven; 19 per cent, the seventh grade at under 
twelve; 31 per cent, the eighth grade at under thirteen; 
30 per cent, the ninth grade at under fourteen; 23 per 
cent enter the first year of the high school at under 
fifteen; 29 per cent, the second year of the high school 
at under sixteen; 39 per cent, the third year of the 
high school at under seventeen; and 29 per cent enter 
the fourth year of the high school at under eighteen. 

3. This over age no doubt arises in small degree from 
irregularity in attendance, due to carelessness of par- 
ents or sickness of children. It is also partly due to 
the unfortunate necessity of some children to change 
from city to city where gradations are not the same. 
These, however, are minor factors in a healthy New 
England city where compulsory education is in force. 

4. A principal factor in tending to this over age 
lies in the fact that instruction is not largely scien- 
tific — that is, it is not to any extent built on a study of 



THE LOSSES OF THE SCHOOL. 21 

the child with individual adaptation of nutrition and 
culture to make him individually strong. The opportu- 
iiity to drop behind the class is always an individual op- 
portunity; the opportunity to get ahead is almost always 
limited by class environment. Between these two kinds 
of opportunity there is an abysmal difference. As 
schools usually go, it is ten times harder for a pupil 
to gain a grade than to lose one; ten times harder to 
rise than to fall. Never until the school is built fun- 
damentally for the individual will this element of loss 
disappear. 

5. The table also illustrates in large degree the pov- 
erty of the teaching in the lower grades. This poverty 
is of two kinds: first, the poverty of the teacher; sec- 
ond, the poverty of the subject-matter. Unfortunate 
indeed is the practice in most schools which recognises 
no promotion of teachers excepting that which places 
them in the higher grade. The primary schools, in the 
average, are the rewards of incompetence and inexperi- 
ence. When in the garden does the growing plant need 
the best atteiition? At a time when the child needs the 
best culture, the primary school is impoverished that 
the teacher may be advanced to higher salalry, and the 
children languish while another apprentice weakling is 
being trained to her work. No one can estimate the 
fearful loss to the child from being compelled to lose 
a year under an incompetent teacher. This rotten 
work carried forward into other years becomes a foun- 
dation on which no subsequent teacher can build a solid 
superstructure. Fearfully expensive is poor teaching. 

The poverty of subject-matter is also responsible 
for much of the loss. While it is impossible to accu- 



22 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

ratcly classify results according to these two factors, it 
is probable that much of the loss is due to the unfortu- 
nate subject-matter of beginning grades. Heading, for 
instance, in a primary school, is a poverty-laden study. 
It begins with abstraction, and prematurely consumes 
energies on very meagre results. The beginning pupil 
can study reading profitably only a small fraction of his 
time. Heading in the primary school can not be an ex- 
ercise of self-activity to any considerable extent, and 
therefore should be left to a subsequent period when 
results will obtain more rapidly. The fact, shown by 
the table, that there are 570 pupils of normal age for 
the first grade but 1,076 pupils in that grade, indi- 
cates the tremendous losses to which reference is made. 
Practically it must take, in the average, two years for 
a child to pass over the meagre work of this poverty- 
stricken grade. 

6. The totals at the bottom of the table show the 
success of the operation of compulsory law in keeping 
children in school, at least until the age of fourteen, 
when the law permits outside employment. That is, 
570 are five years of age, 590 are six years of age, 522 
are seven years of age, 518 are eight years of age, 499 
are nine years of age, 478 are ten years of age, 507 are 
eleven years of age, 500 are twelve years of age, 493 
are thirteen years of age, 393 are fourteen years of age, 
208 arc fifteen years of age, 179 are sixteen years of 
age, 105 are seventeen years of age, 72 are eighteen years 
of age, 45 are nineteen years of age, 6 are twenty years 
of age, 7 are twenty-one years of age, and 15 are twenty- 
two years of age. The number is fairly constant until 
the age of optional attendance begins, the mortality 

1 



THE LOSSES OP THE SCHOOL. 23 

losses being about offset by the accessions from private 
schools. The totals at the right indicate the diminu- 
tion of opportunity. The pupils must spend, on the 
average, more than a year in any one grade. The com- 
pulsion of the law is not attended by the democratic 
opportunity which justice requires. An unfair advan- 
tage is taken of the imprisoned child. 

7. Another element in this study presenting itself 
for reflection lies in the attempted enrichment of sub- 
ject-matter which has come in recent years in the lower- 
grade schools. Every year something new is added to 
the course of study. The high school is now doing the 
work of the college of fifty years ago; and the grammar 
school is covering much of the former work of the high 
school. There has been enrichment without elimina- 
tion; extension of work without extension of time, ex- 
cepting perhaps in the interpolation of the ninth grade 
in many schools. I do not say that there is not com- 
pensation in all this; but let not the devotee of the 
graded school disguise the fact — he is gradually raising 
the age limit — the course of study under his plan calls 
for more than thirteen years of time. 

Fundamentally, the principle of enrichment is cor- 
rect. The man who has seen much of the world is bet- 
ter educated than the one who has seen little. The 
child loses nothing by facing a wealth of Nature. But 
enrichment must have the enriched teacher. The 
standards and ideals of older work will not answer the 
requirements of the new. There must be correlation, 
elimination, and correct method. With the teacher of 
training and versatility there can be endless enrichment 
without loss; but it can not be by text requirement. 
4 



24 AN IDEAL SCriOOL. 

The showings of this study of ages should give cause 
for profound reflection. The course of study, in most 
schools, originally provided for twelve years of study. 
The kindergarten has been added and the ninth grade 
interpolated, making a nominal gradation covering 
fourteen years ; and yet the table shows that the course 
of study actually calls for two or three years of addi- 
tional time. This perhaps does not entirely show in the 
ages of those who finally graduate, but it would be 
abundantly manifest if those who from discouragement 
drop out of the school could be taken into consid- 
eration. 

There is a great loss in the detention of pupils too 
long in the elementary schools. The studies of the 
higher grammar grades and of the high school are so 
much richer and more culture-giving that pupils should 
have the earliest possible introduction to these schools. 
Indeed, it is a crime to keep younger children so long 
on the dry husks of most elementary education. For 
similar reasons it is important that students should 
reach the college not later than at eighteen years of 
age. It is discouraging to young people to come to the 
age of twenty or more to find there are still four years 
of the college and three years at the university between 
them and entrance on professional life. President 
Eliot's argument for the reduction of the college course 
to three years is therefore economically sound. Am- 
bitious students should reach the university earlier. 
The possible marriage age of the student is abnormally 
high; it should be lessened. President Jordan's creed 
of opportunity to the common man also has important 
bearing on the argument. We can not bring the rich 



THE LOSSES OP THE SCHOOL. 25 

values of higher opportunity to the common man if 
we deny him early admittance. In like manner, the ele- 
mentary and the secondary schools must short-cut their 
methods and curriculum. There must be elimination of 
dead time and profitless tasks. The teacher must be 
more competent, the studies more enriched. The pupil 
must have unlimited opportunity to accomplish and to 
progress. We must find our way to enrichment and 
opportunity. 

Concerning the showings of the above table certain 
questions will probably arise. 

What is meant by the normal age of a grade pupil? 
I do not know that I clearly understand. 

The normal age of a grade pupil is a hypothetical 
term forced by the nomenclature and practices of the 
graded school. The graded school of Massachusetts, 
for instance, presupposes a course of thirteen grades, 
each grade being planned to require nominally one year 
of time. The pupil enters the first grade at five years 
of age; and therefore, in terms of gradation, five may 
be said to be the normal age of the first grade, six 
years of the second grade, seven of the third grade, etc. 

Are there no corrections to he applied to the show- 
ings of the table? Has not the discussion already inti- 
mated that there might be some? 

The table does not show the fraction of the year. 
In many schools admittance to the first grade is only at 
the beginning of the year or semester; which, however, 
is no defence, for in the school of individual conserva- 
tion every day is a beginning day. The greatest cor- 
rection should probably be because pupils do not all 
come of age at the beginning of the school year; and 



26 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

consequently the average age of pupils in a given grade 
may be half a year more than indicated in the table. 
Even with this correction the losses are enormously 
large, the corrected table showing more than two thirds 
of the pupils to be of over age. 

Attention is called to the dangerous custom of plan- 
ning so much for what is termed the average pupil, 
which fallacy is exceptionally apparent from a study of 
this table. For instance, the average age of pupils in 
each grade, even in this table, in many instances is only 
one step removed from a normal age — that is, the 
average age of the first grade is somewhere in the four- 
hundred group; but such customary manner of esti- 
mating by averages utterly loses sight of the immense 
number of individuals to the right of such average line. 
Says Dr. D. F. Lincoln, " The average does not justly 
represent the individual any more than the army ration 
corresponds to the appetite of each soldier." 

How do you account for the sliowmg that the per- 
centage of loss is not so great in the higher grades as in 
the lower? From the table it seems that there is some 
recovery. 

That recovery is apparent, not real. The school 
from which this table was taken is in a Massachusetts 
city, where the law compels attendance until the age 
of fourteen. When this limit of restraint was passed, 
many pupils gradually dropped from the school, the 
losses being mostly of those who were most discouraged. 
The ones who remained in school represent largely the 
survival of the most favoured. 

Much criticism of the public schools has appeared 
because the pupils do not reach the high school. The 



THE LOSSES OF THE SCHOOL. 27 

reply has almost universally heen made, that it is because 
they do not remain in school. Does not this table show 
that it is because they are in the lower grades and can 
not reach the high school'? 

Precisely so. The figures to the right of the normal 
line indicate largely the losses of the school, and demon- 
strate the inefficiency of the graded system. Its failure 
lies in the facts: 1. That the beginning time is at the 
convenience of a mechanical plan, and not at the 
convenience of the pupil. 2. It ignores the working 
strength and general experience which come with ma- 
turity. 3. Its progressions are by the class. Under 
its practices losses are easy, but recovery is extremely 
difficult. It lacks easy adjustment. 4. It plans its 
work for the average pupil, which is an impersonal and 
impossible factor. 5. It does not hold its own by merit, 
but by compulsory enactment. Other details of its in- 
efficiency will appear as we proceed with this discussion. 

7s it not pretty generally claimed that the graded 
school system affects a great gain by its classification 
of pupils of fairly equal ability into the same school or 
room'? Does 7iot this effect economy in the teacher's 
effort and advantage to all concerned? 

There is no objection to classification, provided it is 
of flexible character. Certainly there is some advan- 
tage in gathering into working sections pupils of kin- 
dred interest and, to a certain extent, of the same gen- 
eral working strength. What is contended against is the 
assumption that the graded organization, as operated 
almost universally in the public schools, meets the re- 
quirements of the needs of individuals. I care not how 
well a school may appear to be graded at the beginning 



28 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

of the year, it will always contain pupils who can do far 
more work than others, in addition to which are other 
potent factors which must not be disregarded. There 
is far more difference in the working abilities of the 
pupils of a given class in a graded school than is gen- 
erally estimated. The graded school does not grade. 

In illustration of this statement attention is called 
to the chart on the opposite page, presenting the results 
of a study of the differences in working abilities of an 
actual class of twenty pupils. 

This chart represents the units of work in Caesar 
accomplished individually by twenty free workers in 
one hundred and fifty aggregate hours of time. The 
class was in the Central High School of Pueblo, Colo- 
rado, the teacher being Miss Ida Brock Haslup. The 
work was distributed through one hundred days, which, 
however, included some holiday time ; the period was an 
hour and a half per day. All the work was done in the 
Latin laboratory, there being no home preparation of 
lessons. The reading of Cassar text was attended by the 
usual collateral work in grammar, composition, and his- 
torical reference. The method was individual, so that 
each pupil had practically the value of the entire period, 
there being no interruption of the general class while 
one individual was qualifying to his teacher. Each 
pupil not only studied the text, but qualified by recita- 
tion and quiz on every sentence of it. The test of ad- 
vancement was thoroughness in each unit, without 
which the pupil could not pass on to a succeeding chap- 
ter. It will therefore be seen that the amount of work 
accomplished, the work being done entirely in the 
teacher's presence, gives an unusually good opportu- 



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30 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

nity to measure the differences in working ability in 
this particular subject. 

The teacher's record of advancement was more ex- 
tended than this sheet, a pupil's record continuing for 
several pages, each chapter in the four books of Cajsar 
being represented by its own column for marking the 
limits of advancement. On a chart like this it is im- 
possible to represent so many columns, therefore the 
chapters are grouped by fives. A check (x) in column 
110 indicates that the pupil has qualified to the end 
of Chapter CX (Book III, Chapter XXI). 

It will be noticed that Pupil A covered 110 chap- 
ters; B, 90 chapters; C, 140 chapters; D, 95 chapters; 
E, 80 chapters; F, 85 chapters; G, 80 chapters; H, 75 
chapters ; 1, 70 chapters ; J, 90 chapters ; K, 80 chapters ; 
L, 85 chapters; M, 65 chapters; JST, 60 chapters; 0, 45 
chapters; P, 45 chapters; Q, 45 chapters; R, 70 chapters; 
S, 60 chapters; T, 40 chapters. 

Do you mean to say that these twenty pupils repre- 
sent an average class in a graded school? 

1 mean to imply just that, and, furthermore, a class 
where pupils study Latin not by requirement but by 
choice. There being no compulsion, the table does not 
represent other pupils, known in many schools, who 
would make the range even greater. Yes, the class is 
a representative one, excepting that the pupils here are 
given opportunity to accomplish what is best for each 
individual case. 

This table will be discussed more fully later on. It 
is presented here to demonstrate effectually that there 
is a much wider range in the differentiation of the 
working abilities of pupils than is generally supposed. 



THE LOSSES OF THE SCHOOL. 31 

This differentiation of abilities represents a differentia- 
tion of needs which the graded school is not meeting. 
If one pupil in a working group can cover one hundred 
and forty chapters of Csesar in the same time required 
by another for the accomplishment of forty chapters, 
then equity demands that he be not held back to mark 
time for the slower pupil's benefit. Again, if the 
Pupil T requires one hundred and fifty hours to do his 
forty chapters well, then every principle of justice de- 
mands that he should not be prematurely hurried for- 
ward. Furthermore, he should not be degraded in the 
eyes of the school because he does need more time. 
There should be no tail of the class nor losses from the 
school's playing " Crack-the-Whip." The study shows 
conclusively that even in a " well-graded class " there 
are some pupils who can do three times as much work 
as others. 

Sanitarians will ask the question: 

How did this working plan meet the needs of pupils 
sick and well, to which reference has already been 
made? 

The plan met the physiological needs of the pupils 
far better than the graded school can. For instance, 
one of the girls was absent because of sickness for two 
months. While sick, she was not worried about keep- 
ing up with the class, and returning, took up the work 
just where she had left it. Another girl was at that 
critical period in adolescence when all the life ener- 
gies seem centred in vital organic changes. She needed 
accommodation and found it. Another pupil was of 
consumptive tendency, and had opportunity to do just 
what he could. The plan permitted some to gain an 



32 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

education who otherwise would have been exiled from 
the school. Some of these pupils probably did not work 
the full one hundred and fifty hours, but as none of 
these are represented in the maximum or minimum 
accomplishments of work, their inclusion in this study 
does not affect the showing of extreme range of differ- 
ences in working abilities. 

The details of this method will be discussed in a 
subsequent chapter. 

Why in this study have you taJcen a class in Latin? 
Why not have taJcen a class in some other subject, say 
in a lower-grade school? 

A class in Latin has been taken for this representa- 
tion because no other subject of study gives us so well 
a fairly uniform unit of work. When a chapter in 
Cassar is mentioned, every one knows what is meant. 
This is not the case in arithmetic, where problems or 
sections or pages may vary greatly in difficulty and 
length of time required; nor would it be the case in 
grammar, geography, or many other branches. In 
Csesar, five or ten chapters represent fairly well that 
many units or norms, and therefore give a satisfactory 
standard for measurement and comparison. 

However, other tables will throw light on this ques- 
tion of differences in working ability. Indeed, almost 
every subject taught in the public schools can be abun- 
dantly illustrated by similar advancement sheets. 

On the opposite page is a table representing the com- 
parative advancements of twenty-four pupils working 
together in a class in the last grade of the grammar 
school, before admission to the high school. The study 
is arithmetic, the subjects covered being the more ad- 



DIFFERENTIATION OF WORKING ABILITIES IN ARITHMETIC. 

Class of 24 pupils— another class also in room. 



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192 


























292 








479 












278 




















2( 









361 































34: AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

vanced applications of percentage. In this case the ad- 
vancement of each pupil is represented by a line of 
lineal measurement, showing the number of pieces of 
work covered. The chart is planned to show a field of 
five hundred pieces of work. 

Do you mean to say that there is that much differ- 
ence in pupils in a well-graded grammar school? 

The showing is just that. The working sheets from 
which this table was compiled were furnished by Gram- 
mar Master Wilbur F. Nichols, then of Holyoke, Massa- 
chusetts, but now supervising principal at New Haven, 
Connecticut. The class represented was as well graded 
as classes usually are in any school. The pupils had 
all been working with uniform advancement until en- 
trance on this experimental test; then they were per- 
mitted to travel, under careful supervision, each at his 
own rate of speed. The study began at a uniform time 
and stopped at a uniform time. It will be seen that 
Pupil A made an advancement of 193 units; B, 241 
units; C, 335 units; D, IGl units; E, 178 units; F, 274 
units; G, 337 units; H, 284 units; I, 147 units; J, 277 
units; K, 215 units; L, 170 units; M, 197 units; N, 218 
units; 0, 479 units; P, 155 units; Q, 140 units; R, 192 
units; S, 479 units; T, 292 units; U, 278 units; V, 479 
units; W, 200 units; X, 361 units. 

This test was not simply one of quantity, for the 
school in which it was taken was well known for the 
high quality of its work in arithmetic, Mr. Nichols being 
the author of a series of arithmetics. 

It should be remarked once more that, while this 
table of work in arithmetic illustrates well the point 
being made, the comparisons are not so definite as in 



THE LOSSES OB^ THE SCHOOL. 35 

the representation of the Latin class, because tlie unit 
is more variable. However, it is probable that this 
fact will only strengthen the showings in the gram- 
mar-school tables; because, in all probability, the 
stronger pupils covered more advanced and therefore 
more difficult work. The range in working abili- 
ties would therefore be greater than is shown in this 
table. 

Very few persons, even teachers, realize that there 
can be so great a difference in pupils in a well-graded 
school. This misconception is very common, and arises 
from the fact that very few tests have ever been made 
to determine results such as these. There is scarcely 
a so-called well-graded school in the land which, given 
opportunity to depart from uniformity, will not reach 
practically the same showing of the enormous differen- 
tiation in the working abilities of pupils; and this is 
just as true of the college and the university as of the 
public schools. If schoolmen would only cease a little 
from their profitless ordinary examination of children 
and turn the investigation on their own methods, they 
would reach some surprising results. 

A Study of College Entkances. 

The table on page 36 shows the proportion of the 
regular students entering Harvard College, who have 
come from the public schools during the twenty-five 
years, 1871-1894. 

It will be contended that Harvard College repre- 
sents, in its major constituency, only a section of the 
country. Very well ; it represents New England, and 
New England is supposed by many people to represent 



36 



AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 



Year, 


Total entrances. 


From public 
schools. 


Percentages from 
public schools. 


1871 


203 
183 
227 
200 
258 
225 
239 
282 
245 
233 
230 
281 
268 
286 
264 
302 
310 
331 
352 
402 
463 
506 
469 
470 


70 
50 
72 
54 
80 
51 
86 
80 
72 
69 
69 
82 
65 
63 
73 
96 
78 
94 
98 
95 
128 
135 
142 
126 


34.48 


1872 


27.32 


1873 


31.71 


1874 


27.00 


1875 


31.00 


1876 

1877 


22.66 
35.98 


1878 


34.48 


1879 


29.38 


1880 


29.61 


1881 


30.00 


1882 


29.18 


1883 


24.25 


1884 


22.03 


1885 


27.65 


1886 


31.79 


1887 


25.16 


1888 


28.40 


1889 


27.56 


1890 


23.63 


1891 


27.64 


1892 


26.67 


1893 


30.37 


1894 


26.95 







From report of President of Harvard University, 1894-'95, p. 11. 
the best of the public-school system. Nowhere else is 
so much money expended for schools; nowhere else is 
the course of study so long; and nowhere else have the 
high schools lent themselves so completely to college 
preparation. The result, at the present time, is that 
the high schools, as shown by this table, furnish less 
than twenty-seven per cent of those admitted to Harvard 
College. Notwithstanding that the high schools of 
New England for thirty years have been, more and 
more, making of themselves fitting schools, their con- 
tribution to Harvard College, during this time of great- 
est endeavour, has been declining. The average 



THE LOSSES OF THE SCHOOL. 37 

young person who seeks the best training goes where 
he can lind the greatest value. Either the high schools 
should qualify themselves to compete with private in- 
stitutions, or they should cease to bend everything to 
college preparation. 



CHAPTEE III. 

THE LOSSES OF THE SCHOOL (continued) — THE HEALTH 
OF SCHOOL CHILDREN. 

If education is ever to aim at that which is com- 
plete and best, it must comprehend the entire child. 
Fundamental in this, it seems right to expect that the 
product of the school shall be the individual blessed 
with good health. To that end school provisions and 
practices must not be simply permissive of health, but 
they must contribute directly to its realization. Indeed, 
the moment the school begins to encroach on the sacred- 
ness of this domain, just then its usefulness is subject 
to serious question. The first test, then, of an educa- 
tional system is, To what extent does it confer degrees 
of conditioning good health? 

Certainly, the school as at present constituted can 
not be held responsible for the entire defective physical 
condition of a large percentage of school children; but 
our system of child culture, with all it comprehends, is 
responsible, and of this system a large factor is the 
school. 

Now what is the condition of the health of school 
children under the influence or protection of our present 
system of education? Let us consider first the eye, 
which is said to be a fair type of the general price which 
physical health must pay to defective culture. 
38 



THE LOSSES OF THE SCHOOL. 39 

Says Kotelmann: "I have examined a great many 
Lapps, Calmucks, Patagonians, Nubians, Somalis, and 
Singhalese, but I have never found a single near-sighted 
person either among the children or the adults. My- 
opia did not exist in New Zealand till it appeared among 
the natives after the introduction of civilization." * 

In contrast with this remarkable statement, which 
is abundantly substantiated by other investigations 
among uncivilized peoples, how worthy to command our 
attention are the findings of eminent men like Cohn, 
Erismann, Conrad, Agnew, Loring, Derby, Callan, 
Smith, Allport, Allen, Swift, and others, who have 
made expert examination of the physical condition of 
school children ! 

Probably the most extensive investigations that 
have been made are those reported by Dr. Hermann 
Cohn in his admirable Hygiene of the Eye. The ear- 
nest consideration given by the Germans to this matter 
is worthy of profound respect. Perhaps no discussion 
on this subject, since the publication of Dr. Cohn's, has 
been so thoroughly scientific. 

Dr. Cohn's original investigations covered 33 

* "Short-sightedness is one of the evils of modern civilization, 
and in its distribution depends to no slight extent on the present 
modes of education. Congenital near-sightedness is probably 
quite rare, since in infants' eyes the myopic refraction is the 
exception." (Reference Hand-Book of the Medical Sciences, vol. 
V, p. 87.) 

" Myopia is seldom congenital. All experts remark that it is 
rarely found in children of less than five years of age. All agree 
that it arises from too steady application of the eyes to close 
objects, especially during the school age." (Dr. Hermann Cohn, 
in Popular Science Monthly, vol. xix, p. 54.)' 
5 



40 



AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 



schools enrolling 10,060 pupils in the city of Breslau. 
He found an average of 19.2 per cent of defective sight 
among the pupils of the town school. The percentage 
of increases in myopia through the several grades is 
shown by the following table: 

Percentages of Myopia in the City of Breslau.* (Cohn.) 



School. 



Pupils. 


GRADES 


PROM LOWEST 


TO 


BIGHBST. 


8 


7 


6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


1,486 
4,978 

834 
436 

502 












1 


9, 


3 












3 


4 


10 


1 


2 


7 


8 
10 

12 


6 
6 

25 


16 
13 

27 


13 

9 
25 


19 
15 

59 






7 


630 




... 


11 


21 


13 


23 


28 


29 


533 






11 


17 


19 


31 


48 


65 


663 






14 


19 


28 


30 


35 


47 



Aver- 
age ptT 
cent. 



Five village schools.. 
Twenty city elemen- 
tary schools 

T woad vanced schools 

for girls 

Twogrammar schools 

Realschule (z. heil. 

Geist) 

Realschule (z. Zwin- 

der) 

Gymnasium (Eliza- 
beth) 

Gymnasium (Magda- 
lenen) 



1.4 
6.7 

7.7 
10.3 

-19.7 
•26.2 



Grade 1 is the highest in each school respectively. 
The different kinds of schools have not a continuous 
gradation, as in this country. 

Dr. Cohn says : f "It is evident — 

" 1. In village schools the percentage of short-sight 
is very low, while in the town school the number of 



* Reference Hand-Book of the Medical Sciences, vol. v, ji. 86. 

f See Cohn's Hygiene of the Eye, wherein is given a valuable 
discussion of his findings, with reports of the examinations of the 
eyesight of fifty thousand school children. 



THE LOSSES OF THE SCHOOL. 41 

near-sighted scholars constantly increases with the 
grade of the school, from the lowest to the highest. 

" 2. In every school the number of near-sighted 
pupils increases from class to class. More than half of 
the highest class are near-sighted. 

" 3. There is an increase in degree of myopia from 
class to class in all schools. The average degree differs 
but slightly for the two sexes." 

Unfortunately, examinations of this kind have never 
been made in the United States in so thorough and sci- 
entific a manner as is done in European countries. A 
few attempts have been made, which, while they have 
not followed the same pupils through a series of years, 
have nevertheless shown that the same general results 
are to be found in American schools. 

Dr. C. K. Agnew,* of New York, was led to an in- 
vestigation in this country by a feeling of distrust in the 
applicability of Cohn's conclusions to the conditions of 
American schools. He thought the findings of Cohn 
might be largely due to peculiarities of German dietary, 
differences in school buildings, school systems, school 
hours, and other factors. With competent assistance a 
careful examination was made of the eyes of 630 school 
children in Cincinnati, 549 in New York, and 300 in 
Brooklyn, with results which strikingly confirmed the 
conclusions of Dr. Cohn. 

Drs. Loring and Derby examined many children in 
the New York schools and found among scholars six 
to eight years of age 3.5 per cent of myopia; nine to 
ten years of age, 5 per cent; eleven to twelve years of 
age, 10 per cent; fifteen to sixteen years of age, 15 per 

* Medical Review, 1877, p. 34. 



42 



AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 



cent; seventeen to eighteen years of age, 30 per cent; 
eighteen to nineteen years of age, 25 per cent; and 
twenty to twenty-one years of age, 26.8 per cent.* 

Dr. Ward McLean, referring to the examinations 
made by Dr. Edward G. Loring and Dr. Peter A. Callan, 
of jSTew York, Dr. Lucian Howe, of Bujffalo, and Dr. 
Hasket Derb}^ of Boston, says : f 

" The uniform drift of results in all the examina- 
tions here referred to, and relating to over 2G,000 in- 
dividuals, may be regarded as sufficiently establishing 
the following proposition: 

" 1. That, as a rule, near-sightedness originates in 
school life. 

" 2. That a large percentage of the scholars are 
thus afflicted, the percentage progressing with the stage 
of advancement in study. 

" 3. That near-sight is progressive in degree accord- 
ing to the length of school experience." 

Dr. W. P. Smith, in reporting an examination of 
school children in Chicago, presents the following 
table : X 



Eyes Examined. 


Age. 


Percentage of myopia. 


220 


6 to 8 

8 to 10 

10 to 12 

12 to 14 

14 to 15 

15 to 16 

16 to 18 

18 to 19 

19 to 20 


4.09 


280 


5.65 


346 


10.98 


814 


12.89 


204 


16.17 


242 1 
245 
79 " 

48 


Hi 


gh school .... 


17.76 
23.26 
25.31 

27.08 



* Reference Iland-Book of the Medical Sciences, vol. v, p. 87. 

f Popular Science Monthly, vol. xii, p. 74. 

X Reference Hand-Book of the Medical Sciences, vol. v, p. 87. 



THE LOSSES OP THE SCHOOL. 43 

Dr. Frank Allport, of Minneapolis, says : * 

" The report of our first annual examination (1898) 
shows that 25,696 children have been tested, of whom 
8,166, or 32 per cent, were deemed defective. Among 
these, 6,451 eyes were found possessing a vision of 
1^, or a little worse than normal; 2,256 eyes had a 
vision of ff ; 1,214 a vision of |^; 1,130 a vision of fg-; 
745 a vision of ^^; 447 a vision of -^^•, and 43 eyes 
were practically blind; 4,472 children could not use 
their eyes to a reasonable extent without eye-tire, head- 
ache, etc." 

An examination by Dr. H. P. Allen f of 4,700 pupils 
in the public schools of Columbus, Ohio, reveals 1,175 
cases of defective vision (25 per cent), of whom 936 
pupils (20 per cent) were afflicted in both eyes. The 
investigation also found a diminution of good eyes from 
80 per cent in the primary grades to QQ.Q per cent in the 
senior class of the high school. 

Edward James Swift reports X the results of a 
valuable examination of 340 students and pupils in the 
normal school and model school at Stevens Point, 
Wisconsin. Speaking of the 257 students in the nor- 
mal school, he says: "Of the 37 students with nor- 
mal vision of |-g-, 5 have astigmatism without hyper- 
opia, 10 hyperopia without astigmatism, and 14 have 
both defects; while 19 have muscle trouble with or 
without other difficulties, and only 3 have no evident 
defects." 



* Educationfil Review, vol. xiv, pp. 150-159. 

f Science, vol. xii, p. 208. 

X Pedagogical Seminary, vol. v, p. 202. 



44 



AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 



Vision of Three Hundred and Forty Students at 
Stevens Point, Wis. 



Vision. 



Igor better 

f^ or better but not so good as f§. 
t% or better but not so good as f^. 
f^ or better but not so good as t§. 
1^ or better but not so good as |§. 
i\% or better but not so good as |g 
Too or better but not so good as x^o 
Below /u% 



Normal 
dept. 


Grammar 
dept. 


Per cent. 

14. yo 


Per cent. 

21.42 


51.75 


54.76 


12.06 


9.52 


7.78 


9.52 


2.72 


2.38 


2.72 


2.38 


4.28 


.... 


4.28 





Interme- 
diate and 
primary 
dept. 



Per cent. 

19.04 

57.14 

14.28 

2.38 

4.76 

2.38 



Dr. Swift further says, " The results of this inves- 
tigation would seem to justify the conclusion that about 
50 per cent of all pupils have at least one eye whose 
vision is not normal." 

Compared with this table of Dr. Swift's, how sig- 
nificant is the statement made by Dr. P. A. Callan ! * 
"In 1874 I examined the eyes of the scholars attend- 
ing two negro schools — over 500 pupils. Their ages 
ranged from five to nineteen years. One of these schools 
showed 3.4 per cent of near-sight, the other only 1.3 
per cent near-sight." 

Says Dr. Donders, the eminent Dutch oculist: 

" I maintain then, without hesitation, that the 
short-sighted eye is the diseased eye. 

" It is then in youth that injurious exciting influ- 
ences must be most carefully guarded against. 



* Catholic World, vol. xl, p. 559. 



THE LOSSES OF THE SCHOOL. 45 

" Progressive short-sight is in every case ominous 
of evil for the future. 

" Not unf requently at the age of fifty or sixty, if 
not earlier, the power of sight, either from detachment 
of the retina, from heemorrhage, or, lastly from atrophy 
and degeneration of the yellow spot, is irretrievably 
lost." 

Eemarks the reference Hand-Book of the Medical 
Sciences : * 

" There are now on record the figures obtained from 
over 150,000 scholars. The results show that myopia 
increases steadily from the lower to the higher classes, 
both in percentage and in the average of its degree. 
The numerous reports of school examinations by others 
confirm, without exception, Cohn's results. They all 
show a steady increase in myopia on advancing from 
grade to grade. In this country, examinations have 
not been made so extensively as in Germany; but, as 
far as they go, they show a similar increase in myopia 
with advancing education." 

Says the Northwestern Monthly: f 

" There is a fixed conviction that the increase of 
near-sightedness during school life is due to the con- 
ditions of school life. After allowing for the influence 
of all other factors, there is undoubtedly much to be 
charged against the account of school education." 

" There seems to be no longer room," remarks the 
editor of the Journal of Education,J " to question the 
statement that near-sightedness increases alarmingly 

* Vol. V, p. 86. 

f Vol. viii, p. 36. 

X Journal of Education, November 30, 1899. 



46 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

with school children. It should cease to be true. The 
lifetime attiiction of near-sightedness is not to be com- 
pensated by any mental discipline the schools can ever 
give." 

Ingalls declares that " it is a waste of time to 
send a child to school when his eyes are not in proper 
condition to do the work assigned. This language is 
not one whit too strong. We have often felt the pro- 
foundest pity for children who, handicapped by any 
ocular defect, have been goaded by teacher, school- 
mates, and parents into nervous collapse." * 

Surely the remedy, as Callan so well puts it, must 
be something better than the '" good old times when a 
boy complained of not seeing, and then his parents 
whipped him, and the master whipped him, and then 
he saw." 

Granted the excessive amount of near-sightedness 
which too often attends the getting of an education, 
Hotu can we lessen the price which must he paid? Is 
not this unfortunate wrecl-age the result of the general 
conditions of life as ivell as of the school? 

Undoubtedly the conditions of the home and of mod- 
ern life are causes to a considerable degree of the 
defective vision of school children; but, in the light of 
the testimony given, the school can not escape respon- 
sibility for its part. Besides, it must forever be the 
mission of the school to bring about conditions favour- 
able to good health, in the home and elsewhere. 

In referring to the repeated examinations made by 

* The American Year-Book of Medicine and Surgery, 1897, 
p. 893. 



THE LOSSES OF THE SCHOOL. 47 

Florchutz at Coburg, Dr. Cohn remarks, " The in- 
vestigations of this last are of the highest interest, be- 
cause they establish a decrease in the number of myopics 
in the newly built school palaces." This certainly con- 
firms the inference that the school building is respon- 
sible for much of the near-sightedness of children and 
adults. But Dr. Cohn's observation does not go far 
enough, for it does not include the unfortunate results of 
unhygienic methods of instruction, hours of study, order 
of exercises, and other conditioning factors. In what 
ways the school of the twentieth century may do some- 
thing toward the solution of this question will be taken 
up later on in our Construction of the School of Good 
Health. The first thing, however, in the solution of 
the problem is to face it; and this the schoolmen 
have never 5'et done in any very earnest and scientific 
manner. 

As has already been remarked, the schools can not 
be held accountable for the causation of all the physical 
impairment in their constituency; but they are respon- 
sible for permitting much of it to continue. It must 
be the first mission of the school to promote health. If 
this can not be done in the school as at present organ- 
ized, then we must reorganize. It would be better to 
go back to the child culture of Plato's Kepublic than 
to ask the child to lay down his good health as the price 
of a liberal education. If education is to mean anything 
at all it must mean everything. It must comprehend 
the whole man; and the whole man is built fundamen- 
tally on what he is physically. 

Undoubtedly much of the child's condition is due to 
his home environment; but even in this field it is the 



48 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

mission of the school to suggest as much in the line of 
physical improvement as has been deemed its part in 
the intellectual. As far as concerns the child's inter- 
ests, the school and the home must be co-ordinated; 
and for this the home must look to the school for lead- 
ership. Education, then, must take on a much higher 
significance than is the case in the present. Great prob- 
lems are to be solved, and the solution must come 
largely from the school. When we consider the supe- 
rior physical childhood of Spartan education, of sav- 
agery, or even of Mormonism, the question presents 
itself, What has modern civilization to offer to help 
solve the problem of better health for the school chil- 
dren of America? 

There is also a very large amount of hypermetropia 
in the schools. Conrad at Konigsberg (-1:7.47 per cent 
of 3,066 eyes examined), Kotelmann at Wandsbeck 
(48.23 per cent out of 566 eyes), and Erismann at St. 
Petersburg (67.8 per cent), have found a large percent- 
age of far-sightedness * among younger school children ; 
but this is not a matter of any great concern, as the 
natural condition of young eyes is hypermetropic. In- 
deed, it is better to find a large percentage of hyper- 
metropia in a school than emmetropia (normal condi- 
tion), owing to the correction that comes later on. 

Spinal Curvature. 
During the period of school life the bones of the 
body are soft and yield themselves readily to the in- 
fluences of posture and habit, thus giving opportunity 

* Kotelmann's School nygiene, p. 241. 



THE LOSSES OF THE SCHOOL. 



49 



for the correction of body defects under proper train- 
ing, or for the beginning and augmentation of mal- 
formations which may not show much in the present, 
but will be a source of distress and unhappiness in 
later life. If a boy's shoulder can be raised or low- 
ered three inches under two or three months of care- 
ful training in the school, how responsible is the school 
for failure to recognise and to correct the spinal curva- 
ture, which is so largely the result of unhygienic furni- 
ture, unfortunate hours of study and habits of sitting, 
rigid discipline, and methods of instruction ! A scien- 
tific examination will reveal a large amount of curva- 
ture of the spine which in some way has escaped detec- 
tion — largely, perhaps, because the person so afflicted 
is not himself conscious of this beginning and unprom- 
ising difhculty. 

Dr. Stuart H. Eowe, in his excellent work on The 
Physical Kature of the Child, presents the following 
figures * showing the number of cases per thousand of 
a form of spinal curvature (scoliosis) found in school 
children of German schools by Eulenberg: 

From birth to 2 years 5 eases. 





2 years to 3 years 21 






3 ' 

4 ' 

5 ' 

6 ' 


' to 4 ' 
' to 5 ' 
' to 6 ' 
' to 7 ' 


' 9 






' 10 






' 33 






' 216 






7 ' 


' to 10 ' 


' 564 






10 ' 


' to 14 ' 


' 107 






14 ' 


' to 30 ' 


' 28 






20 ' 


' to 30 ' 


' 7 











* Rowe's Physical Nature of the Child, p. 154. 



50 



AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 



Says Dr. Rowe, " It will thus be seen that 920 of 
the cases out of the thousand occur between the ages 
of six and fourteen, a tremendous evidence of the un- 
hygienic treatment of children by the school." 

The following representative table,* showing cases 
and percentages of spinal curvature among school chil- 
dren as found by Dr. Krug, will be of interest: 

Spinal Curvature. {Krug.) 



Age. 


Boys examined. 


Cases. 


Percentages. 


8- 9f 


86 
103 
103 
314 
130 

71 


10 
17 
29 
59 
43 
23 


11.5 


lO-lOf 


16.5 


11-llf 


28.0 


12-131 


27.5 


13-131 


35.0 


14-161 


32.5 







Dr. Kotelmann, in his disc^^ssion of this subject, 
says : f " Many facts point rather to the conclusion that 
most scolioses are due to certain conditions of school 
life. Schildbach says directly from his own wide expe- 
riences, ' By far the greater number of scolioses origi- 
nate during the school period.' Klopsch reaches the 
same conclusion — namely, that the majority of mal- 
formations are produced between the tenth and four- 
teenth years of life. Cluillaume found, among 731 
pupils in Neufchatel, 218 with incipient scoliosis. In 
Nuremberg, 15 per cent of the school population were 
afflicted with spinal curvature, and in Munich about 
7 per cent of 2,128 school children. In Dresden, 344, 
or 24 per cent of 1,418 pupils in the common schools 



* Kotelmann's School Hygiene, p. 312. 
t Ibid., p. 311. 



THE LOSSES OF THE SCHOOL. 51 

between the ages of eight and seventeen, were found 
by Krug to have scoliosis." 

" The sitting posture, at best, is not a safe one for 
children and delicate individuals to occupy continu- 
ously. The influence of gravitation, however, applied 
to the spinal column, is one which it is difficult for so 
movable a structure to resist, so that the tendency to 
the production of abnormal curves is always great, and 
increasingly so the longer the posture obtains." * 

" More and more," says Baginsky,f " does the opin- 
ion gain ground, particularly among surgeons, as the 
result of their anatomical and physiological studies and 
practical observations, that the origin of the most 
serious of all curvatures of the spine — the lateral curve 
— is due, in the great majority of cases, to the influences 
of school life on youthful organisms." 

Geneeal Physical Debility. 
The effects of bad posture in school and work under 
unfortunate conditions, of long hours and outside study, 
of unhygienic methods of instruction, of failure to rec- 
ognise the physiological needs of pupils at periods and 
times of special stress, undoubtedly tend to encourage 
physical degeneracy where the school should stand for 
health and strength. This gives rise not only to the 
large amount of defective vision and spinal curvature 
already considered, but also to lung weaknesses and 
heart irregularity, to nervous and digestive diseases, 
and many other incipient stages of physical deteriora- 

* Mosher, Educational Review, vol. iv, p. 346. 
t Deutsche Medizin. Zeitung, 1888, p. 529. 



52 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

lion. Education can never be regarded as truly scien- 
tific until it guarantees to every child better health in 
consequence of his attendance upon the school. Has 
the pursuit of an education realized this in the past? 

In an examination of the schools of the better classes 
in Copenhagen in 1881, Dr. Hertel * found 31 per cent 
of 3,141 boys and 39 per cent of 1,211 girls suffering 
from chronic debilitating diseases, the acute diseases 
not being taken into consideration, the highest percent- 
age being reached at twelve years of age. 

A royal commission made an investigation of the 
schools of Denmark in 1882 and found f 29 per cent of 
17,595 boys and 41 per cent of 11,646 girls to be in 
chronic ill health, the highest percentage (51) being 
reached at the age of thirteen. 

About the same time a commission was appointed 
to make a similar examination of health conditions in 
the schools of Sweden, with results as follows : X Of 
11,210 boys in the higher common schools, 44.8 per 
cent were found to be sickly, the highest percentage 
(50.2) being in the Latin section. The proportion of 
particular complaints was: Headache, 13.5 per cent; 
anemia, 12.7 per cent; nose bleed, 6.2 per cent; loss 
of appetite, 3.2 per cent; scrofula, 2.7 per cent; nerv- 
ousness, 2 per cent; curvature of the spine, 1.5 per 
cent; near-sightedness, 15.2 per cent; and unspecified, 
9.9 per cent. In examining 3,072 pupils of the higher 
schools for girls, the commission found 65.7 per cent 
to be suffering from more or less chronic diseases or 



* Maine State Board of Health Report, 1893, p. 91. 
t Ibid. X Ibid., pp. 93, 93. 



THE LOSSES OF THE SCHOOL. 53 

deviations from health, with percentages as follows: 
Ansmia, 36.6; nose bleed, 6.8; nervousness, 6.5; defi- 
cient appetite, 12; short-sightedness, 11.5; spinal curva- 
ture, 10.8; scrofula, 5, etc. 

Dr, James Crichton-Browne, in an examination of 
187 high-school girls, well fed and clad and cared for, 
and ranging from ten to seventeen years of age, found 
as many as 137 complained of headaches, which in 65 
instances occurred occasionally, in 48 frequently, and 
in 24 habitually. In his report * he says : " Two thirds 
of high-school girls will attest that the hardest part of 
their work — preparation, which involves the opening 
of new ground, and advance on what has been already 
learned, and effort in surmounting obstacles — has to be 
performed in the evening, when they are already worn 
out, at the very time when, in the cycle of daily life, 
their brains are least capable of exertion. And no 
inconsiderable number of high-school girls will at- 
test that this arduous work of preparation is often 
carried on until ten, sometimes even eleven o'clock at 
night." 

Eemarks Sir Richard Owen : " Children have no 
business with headache at all ; and, if you find that these 
occur frequently in any school, you may depend on it 
there is something wrong there." 

A special committee appointed in 1881 by the Board 
of Education of the city of Cleveland to make some 
investigations concerning the health of the graduates 
and pupils of the high schools of that city, made a very 
suggestive report. 

* Sex in Education. Educational Review, vol. iv, p. 164. 



54 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

Health Record of Forty Boys u'ho left the High School, lSSO-81.* 



Health Conditions. 


When entered. 


At school. 


After leaving. 


Good 


85 per cent. 
10 " 
5 " 


45 per cent. 
17.5 '• 
5 
10 

15 

7.5 " 


70 per cent. 
24 


Fair 


Eather poor 

Poor 


5 " 


Quite poor 

Very poor 















While in school the health of 50 per cent of the 
boys was not so good; 23 per cent lost appetite; 10 per 
cent lost sleep; 45 per cent had headache; 23 per cent 
had weak eyes; 23 per cent left school wholly or in part 
on account of ill health. 

Health Record of Eighty-five Girls ivho left the High School in 
1880-81, and Eleven ivho left in 1879-80 — Ninety-six in all.\ 



Health Conditions. 


When entered. 


At school. 


After leaving. 


Good 


73 per cent. 
22 " 
5 " 


17 per cent. 

9 

7 " 

5 " 
12 " 
48 " 


35 per cent. 
25 " 


Fair 


Rather poor 

Poor 


12 " 

18 " 


Quite poor 

Very poor 




1 




7 " 







Two girls died while members of the school, account- 
ing for the loss of two per cent in the last and next to 
the last columns. 

While at school, the health of 80 per cent of the 
girls was not good; 46 per cent lost appetite; 27 per cent 
suffered from sleeplessness; 72 per cent had headache; 



* Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, vol. cv, p. 486. 
t Ibid. 



THE LOSSES OF THE SCHOOL. 55 

52 per cent had backache or sideache; 44 per cent had 
nervous troubles; 75 per cent left wholly or in part on 
account of ill health; 53 per cent complained of stair- 
climbing; 36 per cent were troubled with weak eyes. 

Says Eowe : * " Tuberculosis, rickets, bronchitis, ca- 
tarrh, and headaches are aggravated, if not brought on, 
by impure air ; chorea, by fatigue of the muscles ; spinal 
diseases, by bad posture in sitting or in writing; indi- 
gestion and constipation, by too much restraint and 
sedentary habits; bad eyes, by bad positions of books, 
paper or light; nervousness, by too much pressure, 
too much worry, and last, but by no means least, by 
nervousness in those about them, where it is possible 
that the teacher is at fault." 

Dr. Young, in his exceptionally valuable report, 
remarks : f "There can hardly be a doubt that the faulty 
sanitary conditions of many school buildings and unwise' 
methods of teaching have much to do with laying the 
foundations of future disease. . , . Digestive diseases, 
initiated in the school, often render the individual an 
invalid or a semi-invalid for life. The combination of 
such influences as bad air, overheating, stooping posi- 
tion and pressure upon the abdominal regions, and 
mental strain, are entirely capable of introducing these 
troubles.'' 

Dr. G. Stanley Hall also adds testimony : J " When 
a child begins to go to school the change of his en- 
vironment is very great. Instead of constant activity, 

* Rowe's Physical Nature of the Child, p. 89. 
f Maine State Board of Health Report, p. 99. 
X Report of Proceedings Department of Superintendence, 1892, 
p. 163. 

6 



56 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

he must now sit still and keep still; instead of moving 
his hands and arms freely, the strain of effort is now 
focussed upon the very few tiny, pen-wagging muscles. 
The eyes, instead of moving freely, are coniined in the 
zigzag treadmill of the printed line. It is no wonder, 
therefore, that the child so commonly loses weight on 
first entering school; that short-sightedness and other 
eye troubles increase almost regularly through the 
school period ; that headaches, anemia, scoliosis, defects 
in development if not signs of disease, appear in the 
stomach, heart, and lungs, and especially in the nervous 
system, the gradual deterioration of which is hard to 
recognise." 

Says Dr. Agnew, in concluding his excellent article 
in the ISTew York Medical Eecord : * "It seems to me 
that the very etymology of the word education enforces 
the idea that the child is to grow better and stronger up 
through his life, and that by proper regulation of his 
diets and management at home, by properly lighted 
school rooms and properly constructed desks, and a bet- 
ter regulation of his hours of study, he should reach 
a much higher type of life when he has reached the age 
of twenty-five years than when he has just been taken in 
hand with a view of giving him book knowledge. We cer- 
tainly should not damage the eye in the process of edu- 
cation, and I believe that the damage done the eye is 
to be taken as an index of that which is done to other 
organs of the body." 

There are many other phases of the question of the 
effects of school life on the physical health of the child, 

* New York Medical Review, 1877, p. 36. 



THE LOSSES OF THE SCHOOL. 57 

which demand serious attention; but the data and argu- 
ments already presented will abundantly substantiate 
the statement that our present methods of education 
are too expensive. Health is a prime requisite in the 
school. It is the foundation on which everything else 
must be built. 

In the light of this discussion, does it not seem that 
a school should be constructed that would in no way rob 
man of any of his natural glory? There is absolutely 
nothing in the legitimate field of intellectual activities 
that need deteriorate physical health. Eemove the in- 
centives to cram and overtension, give the school chil- 
dren pure air, freedom of movement, good food, and 
plenty of sleep, vitalize their work by living interest, 
and it is simply remarkable how much mental activity 
the brain will sustain and how such activity will react in 
producing health. The longevity of our great scien- 
tists and literary men abundantly shows this. There 
is no reason whatever why the school should bring loss 
to the child. 



CHAPTEE IV. 

FUNDAMENTALS IN PLANNING A SCHOOL. 

"Thrice happy is the country child, or the one who can spend 
part of iiis young life among living things near to Nature's heart. 
How blessed is the little toddling thing who can lie flat in the 
sunsliine and drink in the beauty of the 'green things growing,' 
who can live among other little animals — his brothers in feathers 
and fur — who can put his hand in that of dear Mother Nature and 
learn his first baby lessons without any meddlesome middleman !" 
(Kate Douglas Wiggin.) 

In the planning of an ideal school there are certain 
fundamentals which must be conserved. 

Good Health. — Basic to every other consideration, 
good health must be recognised as the essential condi- 
tion and fundamental aim of all education. The value, 
therefore, of every contributing factor — the school 
building, the teacher, the studies, the programme of ex- 
ercises, and the methods of instruction — is determined 
by the degree it promotes health of body, mind, and 
soul. That education in the past has been unnaturally 
expensive in this particular has been the shame of the 
school room ; that it can find must reach higher fruition 
in the ascent of inan is the responsible charge of civili- 
zation. 

Good health calls for pure air, purifying sunshine, 
good companionship, correction of past weaknesses, 
adequate illumination, proper nutrition, regular habits, 
58 



FUNDAMENTALS IN PLANNING A SCHOOL. 59 

correct posture, suitable studies, good tools, healthful 
mental stimuli, and normal procedure in work. As 
Presidjent Hall has so well put it, " Health is whole- 
ness or holiness itself in its highest aspect." 

The Value of Sunshine and Light. — With all a 
child's love for the outer world of beauty and his in- 
stinct for sunshine and light, it is no wonder that he is 
glad when the intermission or vacation is at hand. It 
is taken for granted that the growing plant must be 
placed in the window for full appropriation of the light ; 
but no one thinks of the similar needs and soul-crav- 
ings of the human plant. Dr. Edward Everett Hale, in 
his own glorious health, never tires of speaking of the 
importance of the sun-bath, and, with great delight, 
quotes Dr. Everett in speaking of going outdoors as 
" coming in," and of coming indoors as " going out," 
because of relations to the great world of Nature and 
sunshine. Are our school rooms flooded with light as 
they should be? Is every room so situated as to re- 
ceive the daily purification of direct sunshine ? Is there 
realization that a disease germ can not live in the light 
of the sun? Are the school grounds ample for the 
gathering of as many young colts as there are children ; 
and are the children turned loose to romp and play in 
the bath of the sun; or is theirs the benighted portion 
of the modern recess in a darkened and air-polluted 
room? Sunshine is a prime requisite in the culture 
of children. The healthiest man or woman is the one 
who lives most in the sunshine; and the school will 
always be defective until it presents more and more of 
the conditions of normal life. An old Italian proverb 
says, " Where the sun does not go the doctor goes." 



60 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

The Love for Nature. — Mature is the mother of all 
life, and in her garden the healthiest plants are to be 
grown. Every child is a born naturalist. His eyes are 
open to the glory of the stars, the beauty of flowers, 
the charm of life, and his ears to the music of a world 
of song. His innate interests need little to awaken 
them into a world of activity and to link him to that 
Avliich will lift him up through Nature to Nature's 
God; but, too often, he leaves all this to enter the for- 
mal school, where the curtains are gradually drawn over 
the windows of his soul. He exchanges the great fruit- 
ful, illimitable universe, where the teacher could have 
led him to soul expansion and the discovery of truth, 
for a box twelve feet by twenty-six by thirty-two, where 
his soul takes its shape from the limited surroundings, 
and he goes forth in time to wear goggles because he 
can not look at the light. Is there no education better 
than that of the box? Is it necessary that the child 
shall surrender all his natural instincts, so promising 
and satisfying, for the artificial life of the average 
school? Are man's best interests conserved by making 
him in toto a sitting animal, with his nose in a book 
and with the muscles of the neck lengthened in order 
that he may bend his head over a table ? Shall we not 
rather look forward to the nobler school of the great 
outer world, where Nature is the basic study for the 
school's purposes, and brings the child's work into rela- 
tion with the living interests of the soul ? To know Na- 
ture, what an inestimable privilege ! To love Nature, 
how full of inspiration and delight! To he in accord 
with Nature, how safe the child for all the purposes of 
life and of heaven! 



FUNDAMENTALS IN PLANNING A SCHOOL. 61 

How beautifully sings Longfellow of the illimitable 
field of Nature and her effective place in the education 
of a child: 

" And Nature, the old nurse, took 
The child upon her knee, 
Saying, ' Here's a story-book 

Thy Father has written for thee. 

" ' Come, wander with me,' she said, 
' Into regions yet untrod ; 
And read what is still unread, 
In the manuscript of God.' 

" And he wandered away and away 
With Nature, the dear old nurse, 
Who sang to him, night and day, 
The rhymes of the universe. 

" And whenever the way seemed long. 
Or his heart began to fail. 
She would sing a more wonderful song. 
Or tell a more marvellous tale." 

Inspiration. — The greatest thing a child ever gets 
in the school or the adult in the college is not subject- 
matter, but heart contact with great personality. To 
be given the key of interest and to be inspired to great 
deeds is the summum honuni of all the pupil can get 
from the teacher. There is more education in a single 
hour in the imparted touch from a great soul than in 
years of mechanical school-room grind. It is not a 
question of long hours of the formal school or of what 
studies, but with whom. The student, be he man or 
child, who has been lifted to the heroics of inspiration 
and purpose, possesses the fundamentals of his educa- 
tion, to which everything else is accessory. Uplift, 



62 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

vision, and inspiration — these are the master-keys 
which unlock the doors of all progress and delight. 

The Play Instincts. — There is that in the heart of 
the child which makes work easy when it is related 
to play. There is little educative value in drudgery. 
The child has a divine right to a life of joy, to an 
abundance of time for play, to the doing of the work of 
the school in ways in accord with his own stages of life, 
and to express his work in exercises of living interest. 
Requirement, therefore, must give way to spontaneity; 
fatalism, to choice; drudgery, to play; execution of 
tasks, to individual initiative. Under the inspiration of 
the right teacher, and with proper suggestion, the 
child's own innate interests are all-sufficient for the ac- 
complishment of work. 

Individuality. — Individuality is the most precious 
thing among the fruits of the world. Society is rich 
from the fact that people are not all alike. Science, 
induvstry, art, and literature all reach their illimitable 
creations through this same cardinal factor, which 
has been fundamental in the evolution of a world of 
beauty and achievement. That the child learns much 
from others is pre-eminently true ; that his greatest de- 
velopment is reached through giving himself for others 
is just as true; but both of these have their highest 
realization in that development of his individuality 
which enables him to appropriate most for his own 
culture, and to give that which others have not. He 
may gain from others, but it must be by his own imi- 
tation. He may be directed by his teachers, but it 
must be by suggestion. Individuality, with all it may 
contain, is the precious thing in his personal enrich- 



FUNDAMENTALS IN PLANNING A SCHOOL. 63 

nient of the world; and, therefore, its culture is of 
first importance. This is the height of all education; 
the most natural and yet the most difficult. Its con- 
servation is the lever which must overturn the foun- 
dations of the formal school. Individuality must be 
king. 

Normal Growth. — The healthy plant grows by that 
which it appropriates and makes its own. Any attempt 
to force it can only result in ultimate weakness. Firm- 
ness and endurance come also by self-made victory. No 
strong character ever yet was made by coddling. The 
whole realm of divine economy is built fundamentally 
on the principle that growth is the result of self-appro- 
priation, and that strength is the product of struggle. 
The reward is " to him that overcometh." In the same 
way the child in the school must do his own work. 
There is little virtue in an exercise where the steps are 
all marked out for him. He must be given opportunity 
for choice, and to find his own way to results. He also 
must be an investigator and a creator. The best help 
is self-help. To be well helped, the child must be taught 
to help himself. This emphasizes the necessity for 
individual opportunity. No two children are exactly 
alike. Each must have that which is best for his own 
growth. 

Bepetition of the History of the Race. — That the child 
repeats the history of the race is undoubtedly true in 
the normal individual. This is evidenced in his natural 
interests, in his plays, and in that which seems to be 
best for his own growth and development. What, then, 
are the elements which should b'e incorporated in a 
scheme of consistent education? 



64 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

1. Love for Nature. — jSTature is the mother of all 
life, and it is in her cradle that the infant finds his 
growing strength and the convalescent is nourished 
back to life. To the untutored mind she expresses her- 
self in visible forms, and the soul of man finds fellow- 
ship in her kindred pastimes. The child's eternal query 
concerning the stars of the night and the flowers of the 
day, his love for the beauty of meadows green and grow- 
ing trees, and his delight in the presence of the running 
stream, the singing bird, and animal life — are akin to 
the richest instincts in the history of primitive man. 
Happy is that child who, in his contact with artificial 
life, still has preserved to him his early love for the 
beautiful in the natural world. 

3. Religion. — The belief in immortality is instinc- 
tive in every soul. To primitive man the phenomena 
of N'ature are the visible expressions of the infinite 
God. Man reaches his first realization of the ex- 
istence of deity and divine goodness not through a 
creed, but through the manifestations of the beauty, 
adaptation, and manifest design in the world about 
him. The immanent God has been, in the history of 
man in his struggle from infancy unto light, the 
basic consciousness which has rendered acceptable the 
doctrines of higher faith. Because of this historic fact 
of the manner which God deemed best for the develop- 
ment of racial man, is there not abundant suggestion 
for the normal education of the child? Is it not a 
good thing for a child to reach the early development of 
his religious consciousness through the growing realiza- 
tion of tlie evidence of design in all the beauty, correla- 
tion, and unity of the world about him and by living 



FUNDAMENTALS IN PLANNING A SCHOOL. 65 

more in the presence of the immanent God ? With such 
grounding of consciousness would not his belief be 
firmer because of the living " reason for the faith that 
is in him " ? Contemplation of Nature must lead to 
the evidence of design, and design must presuppose a 
designer. Contact with superior souls, through hero 
worship, leads to the realization of might and good- 
ness; and in the ground-work of might and goodness 
arise the loftiest ideals of a personal God. No creed ever 
yet spoke to the sons of men with the convincing power 
of the voice of Nature, " which cries aloud in all her 
works." Later on the doctrines of theology may well be 
taught, but the little child should be led to his funda- 
mental consciousness of God by contact with the mani- 
festations of God. There is that in the heroics of the 
mountains, in the majesty of the ocean surf, in the 
peacefulness of graceful landscape and limpid lake, in 
the eternal query of the stars, in the grandeur of the 
forests, in the exquisite beauty of the flowers, in the 
music of the birds, and in the adaptation and perfect 
unity of all life, which cradles the soul for indisputable 
belief in God and for the breathings of the " peace that 
passeth all understanding." 

3. Contact with Soil. — " God made the country, but 
man made the town." Happy is he who spent his early 
life on the farm in contact with soil and growing things. 
The child who has never dug the rich ground and crum- 
bled the nutrient soil with his hands, nor planted the 
seed which, under his fostering care, is to unfold into 
growing life, has been unfortunate indeed. To dig, to 
plant, and to nourish a plant as one's own child, what a 
necessary part in one's education! How seldom the por- 



66 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

tion of direct contact Avith these things in the life of 
the city child, and yet how fundamentally necessary 
in the natural education of every individual, as it has 
ever been in the development of the race ! With all the 
movement of life more and more away from the country 
toward the artificiality of the city, it becomes the mis- 
sion of the school to bring back this touch with basal ele- 
ments, which have ever been the rich food of the soul. 
The healthy child must live in the sunshine, must touch 
the soil and grow things of life. We must not forget 
the garden which was man's first Eden. 

4. Dominion over Life. — " And God said, Let us 
make man in our image, after our likeness; and let 
them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over 
the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the 
earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon 
the earth." Pets and animal companions are absolutely 
necessary in the education of a child. The affection 
existing between a boy and his faithful dog has no 
parallel in the whole realm of pure friendship. The 
fidelity of the dog, the companionship of the cat, and 
the musical song of the bird are all essential to the life 
of the normal child. The taming of the birds, the 
raising of little chickens, the feeding of the rabbits and 
squirrels, are fruitful exercises in the inculcation of gen- 
tleness, care for others, and good citizenship. The child 
who knows nothing of the delights of such comradeship 
is unfortunate indeed. There is wanting a very im- 
portant part of his wholesome life. The school can well 
afford the presence of the singing bird, the nimble 
squirrel, the graceful fish, and kindred forms of life that 
make the school room a miniature world and open up 



FUNDAMENTALS IN PLANNING A SCHOOL. 67 

the rich study of animated Nature and its contribution 
to the dominion of man. 

5. Fellowship. — Individuality has its safeguard in 
the companionship of others. Never should a child be 
brought up in isolation, or in the exclusive companion- 
ship of his elders. He needs playmates and school- 
mates of his own age. The delights of having a chum, 
of belonging to a gang or team, must be vouchsafed to 
every child as his growing nature may seek to assert 
itself. Individualism and altruism are handmaids, and 
the more perfect the one is, the more it has to offer 
the other. The gang spirit, under proper direction, be- 
comes a fruitful factor in the establishment of good 
order, good government, and higher patriotism. The 
child who is reared by himself, for fear of pollution by 
touch with others, may attain to a doubtful degree of 
purity ; but he is a sickly plant, coddled in his weakness 
and unnatural in his imagination. The normal child 
needs fellowship for his own protection. 

6. Construction. — To invent, to design, and to con- 
struct have been the promising factors in the rise of 
man. In expression of the dormant potentialities of 
the race the child seeks to repeat his ancestral history. 
The high educative values of activity, order, and crea- 
tion establish the claim of design and construction to 
a major place in the exercises of the school. The child 
should be encouraged to make things for his plays and 
games and toys ; instruments for his experiments, for 
the school, and for the home. The exercises in manual 
training must be related to service in play or work, to 
help the individual and to make happy his friends. The 
development of creative faculty is the highest mission 



68 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

of the school. As the genius of man has always ex- 
pressed itself in constructive exercises, so must the 
child in like ways climb to the higher levels. The edu- 
cation which ignores creation makes man a servile 
creature of imitation, dependent in his every movement 
upon the fancy of others. 

7. Mytliland. — In his love for story hearing, the 
child repeats the long and well-tried experiences of the 
world before the age of the alphabet and books. As 
primitive man reached a glorious elevation in his rise 
through story-telling to the heights of Athenian cul- 
ture, so the child should gain his first inspiration, his 
first love for heroic life, from the story-teller. It is 
difficult to overestimate the great value of this noble 
exercise in the inspiration of the younger child — an 
exercise but poorly utilized in the schools. There is 
much in the great world of Nature which the child must 
find out for himself ; there is much also which he should 
gain from the story-teller and later on through the lec- 
turer. These exercises inspire to great determination, 
and give ofttimes the larger view which is essential in 
the proper accomplishment of individualistic endeavour. 
The story-teller is the children's friend, and their means 
of getting, by short-cut and in a nutshell, far-reaching 
glimpses into the world which others have trod. A 
most useless person in the school room is the teacher 
who tells everything ; " a consummation devoutly to 
be wished " is the story-teller of discrimination, who 
can unlock the portals of the great unknown and in- 
spire to enter, without herself gathering the rich fruits 
and flowers which must be the privilege of the inter- 
ested child. As in the early history of the race there 



FUNDAMENTALS IN PLANNING A SCHOOL. 69 

was a time when the treasures of precious learning were 
handed down by story-telling, so in the early years of 
individual life is the period of greatest possibilities for 
gathering up, from mythland and narrative history, the 
elemental keys to a great world of inspiration and 
investigation. 

8. Language. — From the hearing of the story- 
teller the child himself has stories to tell. Effective 
speech is always the natural resultant of definite con- 
cept. When the child has something to say the art of 
expression is easy. The early language of the child 
should have little technique. The attentive ear to what 
is interesting leads to its own worthy imitation. Gram- 
mar, spelling, and writing may be necessary at their 
proper times, but the fundamental requisite is the en- 
kindled soul, the vivid imagination, and the definite 
concept — something to say before the saying, and in- 
spiration to say the saying. Later on, the technicalities 
of speech and form have their places, but it is not early. 
To gain the most from the school, the child must be 
fresh for each stage of endeavour, must feel that each 
exercise fits the time and must be inspired to the doing. 
Speech is ever the product of something to say; and 
beauty of diction comes, not from grammatical analy- 
sis, but largely by imitation and soul expression. 

*9. The Widening Horizon.— A?, man in the early 
stages of his race made his excursions from home over 
areas of constantly widening circles, so the child in his 
culture should have the wide angle which sweeps the 
entire realm commanded from his point of view. At 
each successive stage his vision comprehends the same 
things as in the preceding, but farther and more mi- 



70 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

nutely and more relatedly. His central position is still 
the same, but his experience is wider, his comprehen- 
sion more extended, and his generalization more grasp- 
ing. If this is true, then the child is not hurt by travel 
through much of the world, by contact with the ele- 
ments of all Nature as they appear to him, or by rich 
association with those who will lift him into higher 
industry and invention. From the centre outward must 
be the inquiring look. The horizon is constantly wid- 
ening. The gaze may not cover the entire circle, but 
it sees over the same territory as before, but farther 
and better. 

10. Tools. — As with the race, so with the child, the 
tools for accomplishment must be proportionate in sim- 
plicity to his stages of growth. Never should that 
which can count for only a tool be taken for an end. 
Doubtless the early work of the formal school must 
have considerable to do with the acquisition of cer- 
tain alphabets of learning and the mastery of certain 
working tools; but the opening up of the natural world 
and its needs should suggest the need of the tool for 
the child's use. From contact with his own immedi- 
ate world of Nature and from concept formed by story- 
hearing, the child through imitation tells his own tale 
with vivid speech. He tells his story well, because he 
has something to say. He is finding his way to speech 
because there is need for that which is overflowing from 
within. In time he needs to communicate his thoughts 
to others in written form. This he can do best of all 
through drawing and, later on, by attempt at represen- 
tation of words by means of writing. The representa- 
tion of words by spelling then becomes necessary, but 



FUNDAMENTALS IN PLANNING A SCHOOL. ^1 

here also comes into play imitation. To do his work 
best the child should reproduce words elsewhere seen 
and recognised, just as far as he can; but never in his 
early years should he be limited to the use of words in 
the spelling determined proper for adults. Given the 
written representation of elemental sounds, the child 
should be encouraged to grapple with a word and 
represent it as best he can, as he also represents in 
drawing. To limit a child, in his attempt to record 
his stronger concepts, to the exact spelling of the few 
forms with which he is familiar, is to deny him all 
freedom in written expression. It is far better for him 
to express himself with unbridled liberty, and with 
many inaccuracies in- spelling, than to be discouraged 
from attempt at all. Correct spelling is not a prime 
test, nor essential in the language of young children. 
Freedom, fluency, and expression demand that the 
child should have opportunity to represent himself as 
fully and uniquely as he may. There should be no ap- 
plication of close laws in the determination of primary 
written language any more than there should be in 
elementary music composition. The growing strength, 
the self-evident need, the continued attempt, the 
lifting imitation, all need the natural growth which 
is the best safeguard of the expression of vigorous 
thought. 

So also in drawing, the child prefers the outline 
figure rather than the shaded relief. The pictorial 
representations of ancient drawings appeal more to the 
infant imagination than the beauty of rounded form. 
Even in his love for colour the child reaches back to an- 
cestral traits. It is said that aboriginal peoples do 
7 



V2 . AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

not easily recognise a representation in black and 
white; to them the form in colour is more intelligible. 
So also with the child: colour appeals to him more, and 
he should have much of it in his early personal repre- 
sentation. 

Thus, through the child's own expression, through 
written language and drawing, he is led up to the stage 
where interpretation of the representations of others is 
to him necessary. Then that which b}' premature pres- 
entation might have appeared to him as mechanical 
and abstruse, becomes a living, meaningful exercise, 
and he responds with vivid interest to his profitable 
task. Even so must all the abstractions and difficulties 
of technical representation be subordinated to their 
true sequence in a scheme of scientific education. 

From Fundamentals to Accessories. — So, therefore, 
in a fruitful education the things which are funda- 
mental must take precedence over the things which 
are purely accessory. Good health, the invigoration of 
sunshine, the uplift of personality, contact with ISTa- 
ture, love for the beautiful and true, individuality, and 
harmony with the laws of growth, are the prime es- 
sentials in the conservation of the school. The natu- 
ral sequence is from the soul outward, utilizing those 
media which are best for its own growth and the exor- 
cises which are the most fruitful in soul expansion. To 
reverse this universal law of being and growth, by plac- 
ing technicality first and Nature last, gives an arrest of 
development in all healthy interest and innate faculty. 
Technicalities have their places and times, but not in 
the early life of a race or an individual, where divine 
economy has established the necessity of unlimited vis- 



FUNDAMENTALS IN PLANNING A SCHOOL. 73 

ion, living things, liberty in action, and fruitful growth. 
The fundamentals must precede. 

The accessories have their proper places. Details in 
penmanship, exact spellmg, theoretical mathematics, 
the technique of grammar, the philosophy of history, 
mechanical drawing, trade industries and preparation, 
technical science, and second-hand information are all 
very important; hut they are not fundamental, and 
therefore are empty husks on which to feed a young 
child. Even when they are introduced into the school 
they must be subordinated to the primeval laws which 
demand that contributory things should forever be ac- 
cessory to the fundamental. 



CHAPTEE V. 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 



De. Eichaedson, in his Hygeia, a City of Health, 
has given us a beautiful description of a model city, 
believing, with Chadwick, that a city could be con- 
structed with any given mortality. His Hygeia is a 
city of 100,000 people, living in 20,000 houses, built on 
4,000 acres of land, an average of 25 persons to an acre. 
Tall houses, overshadowing the streets and massing peo- 
ple at given points, are nowhere permitted, excepting 
in sections devoted to business. The substratum of the 
city is of two kinds: clay in the northern and highest 
part, and gravel in the southern and southeastern. The 
.houses are all built on arches of solid masonry, and 
there are no underground rooms of any kind. Through 
these subways currents of water continually flow; and 
into these are the washings of the city. The streets 
are everywhere paved with asphalt, so that there is no 
dust or dirt and but little noise. The houses are built of 
glazed brick, impermeable to water, and the bricks are 
perforated transversely with a wedge-shaped opening at 
each end, so that the walls, while continuous in surface 
without, are honeycombed within, and through these 
openings ventilation is effected. The inner surface of 
the walls is left in the natural brick but finished in 
different colours, generally gray. There are no layers 
74 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 75 

of poisonous papers and mouldy paste; and the walls can 
be washed at any time. As with the brick, so also with 
the mortar and wood employed in building: they are 
rendered, as far as possible, free from moisture. Sea 
sand containing salt, and wood saturated with salt, are 
nowhere used. The chimneys are all connected with 
central shafts, into which the smoke is drawn, and, after 
passing through a gas furnace to destroy the free car- 
bon, is discharged colourless into the open air. Every 
room is warmed by a fireplace which also heats the air 
moving freely through the honeycombed walls. The 
roofs are almost flat, and, covered with asphalt and 
barricaded with tastefully painted iron palisades, make 
outdoor grounds or flower gardens. 

The floors of the kitchens, sleeping rooms, and bath- 
rooms are slightly raised in the centre and arc of smooth 
gray tile. In the living rooms the floors are of hard 
wood, kept bright and clean by beeswax and turpentine. 
There are no carpets. In the sleeping rooms twelve 
hundred cubic feet of space is allowed for each sleeper; 
and from these rooms all unnecessary articles of furni- 
ture and clothing are excluded. The buildings being all 
of one story, there are no stairs. Wherever, for special 
reasons, there must be two stories, the bath-room is on 
the midway landing. The houses front both ways. Be- 
tween the fronts on the interior is an open space for 
playground and garden. The house-drains are con- 
stantly flushed into the subways, which are ventilated 
through tall shafts by pneumatic engines. All the gas 
and .water pipes enter the houses from the sriibways. 
Tobacco and spirituous liquors are banished from the 
city. There are no massing of makers of clothing, etc., 



fjQ AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

into large factories, but each class of workers is accom- 
modated with convenient quarters similar to those en- 
joyed by the professional classes. The laundries are 
placed outside of the city and are under official in- 
spection. The sick are cared for in hospitals. The 
city is well provided with baths, swimming pools, play- 
grounds, gymnasia, libraries, lyceum and concert halls, 
etc. Pure water is supplied to each house, but through 
iron pipes. Leaden pipes are forbidden. Transporta- 
tion is effected by a subway system under central 
avenues ; so the streets are always free from dirt, noise, 
and the massing of people. For the few persons who 
die from natural causes the burial process is retained. 
The bodies are buried in artificially prepared carbonifer- 
ous earth, in which the growing of rapid vegetation 
soon appropriates to itself the elements of the bodies. 
There being in a short time no bodies whose resting- 
places are to be marked, the monumental slabs are 
placed in a temple of historic records. 

Such, in brief, are the cardinal outlines of Dr. Eich- 
ardson's City of Health. Does it not contain many 
suggestions for the jjlanning of an ideal school? Let 
us consider some of the specifications suggested also by 
other ideals here and there throiighout the world. 

An ideal school should be built in a park. At least, 
it should have adequate grounds, preferably not in the 
heart of the city. There is probably no other assem- 
blage of animals, cared for by man, which in their 
culture are accorded so little ground, play and breathing 
space, as children. No one would think of building a 
college without ample surrounding grounds. Why 
should there be less provision for the children? 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 7Y 

Some Suggestive Schools. 

The school chiklren of Andover, Massachusetts, are 
exceptionally blessed in this particular. Here is a mag- 
nificent campus of perhaps twenty acres, with extended 
frontage and oblong shape. The school children, about 
six or seven hundred in all, are accommodated in three 
buildings — the primary school, the grammar school, the 
high school — so situated that each school has approxi- 
mately a third of the ground for air, light, play, and 
gardens. How can a city better appropriate its parks? 

The Pestalozzi-Froebel House, of Berlin, is worthy 
of careful consideration. Here, practically in the 
heart of the city, is a magnificent park of four or five 
acres, with noble forest trees, playgrounds, gardens, 
animal yards, fountains, and other effective adjuncts to 
the school. The school is a garden home, and, from 
lodge gate to the attractive centre, is delightfully 
planned to give the children their education under cir- 
cumstances in contact with Nature. 

One of the suggestive schools of the world is the 
Abbotsholme, near Eocestcr, Derbyshire, England. 
The school buildings, surrounded by gardens and or- 
chards, are in the middle of 133 acres of magnificent 
school property. The Abbotsholme stands 320 feet 
above sea level on the western slope of the Dove, which 
it overlooks. The surrounding country is remarkably 
fine and open, and, being nearly all wooded hillside and 
meadows, is like a vast park. Here are commodious 
sunlit buildings, shops, beautiful gardens, grounds 
for tennis, cricket, football, and tobogganing, a fine 
river for swimming — a school of Nature in the midst 



78 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

of Nature. Certainly this is a private school, made self- 
sustaining by its own ideals and enterprise; but when, 
in great economic industries, and even in university 
training, did the state ever admit that it can not com- 
pete with private enterprise? In these days, when 
the smaller farms fail to bring compensating returns, 
why not utilize them once again for the culture of 
children? 

In Wales there is a farm school of four thousand 
acres for the training of the sons of noblemen who are 
to become landholders. Almost every kind of industry 
related to the farm has its place in the work of this 
school. What a magnificent place this would be for 
the application of President Hall's seventy different 
trades and occupations which he describes as belonging 
to the education of the New England farm boys a quar- 
ter of a century ago ! Indeed, it is said that President 
Hall's suggestions are being utilized in the operations 
of this training school. 

The George Junior Republic, of Freeville, New 
York, is certainly a very interesting institution. From 
a summer camp the little school has grown to be a 
permanent community. The site is a farm, which con- 
tains an administration building; the " Republic " build- 
ing, containing kitchen, restaurants, hotel, and lodging- 
house; the school-house, containing also banks and 
stores; the court-house and community offices, cottages 
for boys and girls, a hospital, a barn, a bath-house and 
laundry, carpenter and machine shops, and the garden. 
The high educational value of the plan is shown from 
the fact that the citizenship is composed of boys and 
girls, of ages twelve to eighteen, many of whom might 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. Y9 

be said to have had previously a strong criminal ten- 
dency. Here, nearly two hundred in number, they are 
organized into a practical business community, with 
their own officers, laws, penalties, and participations. 
Each citizen must work for his living at some selected 
vocation, and is paid for his services in community 
money, from which he must support himself. Those 
who are the most industrious and prosperous may live 
at their " Hotel Waldorf," while others may find what 
they can pay for at the ordinary hotel, or at the lodging- 
houses and restaurants. Every offender is promptly 
dealt with by trial in the court-house, and with fine or 
confinement in the jail. Competent directors are at 
hand to render guidance and assistance as may be 
needed. The institution is largely supported by the 
earnings from the farm. Under the limited revenues 
certainly the plan can not be ideal; but its successful 
career, now for seven years, shows what can be done, 
even in reformation, b}^ giving boys and girls responsi- 
bility and self-interest in work which is not entirely 
artificial. 

A very unique school is the McDonogh Farm 
School, located eight miles from Baltimore. The school 
is situated on a fine old colonial estate containing 835 
acres. Forests of nut-bearing trees for birds and squir- 
rels and boys, meadows, clear-running brooks, fertile 
soil, gardens, vineyards, and orchards of fruit trees 
make this a rare spot. The property represents $1,500,- 
000, and is a noble monument to John McDonogh, who 
fifty years ago closed his will with this pathetic expres- 
sion: "I was near forgetting that I had one small re- 
quest to make, one little favour to ask, and it shall be 



80 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

the last. It is that it may be permitted annually to 
the children of the schools to plant and water a few 
flowers round my grave." One hundred and fifty boys, 
of ages ten to sixteen, are here enrolled. Their usual 
school studies are not neglected; but they are also 
trained in the exercises of the farm. Gardening, care 
of animals, bee-keeping, carpentry, wood-carving, draft- 
ing, broom-making, military drill, music — all offer their 
valuable contributions. The Rudimentary Society for 
boys is a very interesting part of the schooling. The 
rights of the individual are always to be respected. A 
boy's name placed near a bird's nest or a squirrel's hole 
protects it sacredly. This little community with its 
peculiar features is certainly very suggestive. 

At the Casa de Piedra Ranch, in the Ojai Valley, 
among the mountains of southern California, may be 
found a school of exceptional interest, under the direc- 
tion of Sherman Day Thacher, of Yale, and his capable 
assistants. Some thirty boys, largely from the East 
and preparing for the better colleges, are received. 
Each one, on admittance, is given a horse to be his prop- 
erty and for which he must care. The school is semi- 
mihtary in its conduct. The boys all rise early and 
attend to their part of the ranch life. Then the morn- 
ing is spent in hard, fruitful study. When the after- 
noon signal comes, every boy mounts his horse and away 
over the mountains in gallop and fun. The early even- 
ing has its cultured social life, until the retiring bell 
closes the day's activity. Notwithstanding the large 
amount of time given to field and mountain sports, this 
school has no difficulty in preparing its students for the 
best of Eastern colleges. 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 81 

But how, says some one, shall we secure to the chil- 
dren this abundance of air and playground in our mod- 
ern concentrated life in cities ? By building the schools 
in central parks or on suburban farms, as will be shown 
further on. One of the unfortunate tendencies of 
American life is that man is becoming less and less a 
walking animal. It is said that in Switzerland, where 
the children spend excessively long hours in the school, 
the physical health is exceptionally good, and that this 
has its explanation in the long walks over the moun- 
tains, which the children must take in order to get to 
school.* It is to be regretted that this magnificent exer- 
cise is rapidly becoming a lost art in America. The 
child who, because of physical weakness, can not go to 
school unless the school is in the immediate neighbour- 
hood, is hurt more by school-room confinement than he 
is benefited in his education. 

The Jacob Tome Institute, at Port Deposit, Mary- 
land, is to be one of the most promising model schools 
of America. Here private endowment is offering a 
worthy substitute for the usual system of public educa- 
tion. In Port Deposit there are no schools supported 
at public expense; there is no school board of changing 
constituency to limit the reaching of lofty ideals. The 
Institute has recently purchased a magnificent campus 
of one hundred acres or more, a hundred feet above 
the Susquehanna, the beautiful windings of which it 
overlooks, and there it is now proceeding to erect a 
million dollars' worth of buildings, with all their de- 
lightful surroundings and opportunities, for the aecom- 

* Search. Health of Swiss School Children (Educational Review). 



82 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

modation of two thousand pupils. The fact that this 
site is on a bluff, above the town, which it overhangs, 
and some distance away, presents no engineering diffi- 
culties to the vigorous management of this school, 
which seeks the best in education. 

In 1894 Mr. W. F. Wheeler, a graduate of Harvard 
and an educator of many years' experience, submitted 
to the citizens of Los Angeles, California, a plan for 
the centralization of all the schools of that city (popu- 
lation then 100,000) in a general school park. What 
appears at first thought perhaps impracticable resolves 
itself on maturer consideration into a scheme of high 
economic and suggestive value. Mr. Wheeler's article * 

* " The recent appointment of Professor Search as Superin- 
tendent of Public Schools in Los Angeles, and the delivery of his 
address — An Ideal Public School System — at a reception given in 
his honour, September 17, 1894, at Hazard's Pavilion, also his neces- 
sary demands for more accommodations to seat two thousand or 
more scholars and to establish an industrial high school, all 
involving the necessity of issuing school bonds to a great amount, 
make it a fit opportunity to present to the public my long-cher- 
ished plan of a school park, to carry out, in accordance with the 
spirit and progress of present civilization, more successfully, 
practically, and economically the very same theories of teaching 
that' Professor Search so justly advocates. 

" The plan is this : There shall be established by the city a 
park of suitable dimensions, say not less than two hundred acres, 
in a healthful locality near the city limits, say the west side, in 
which shall be located all the public schools of the city grouped 
according to their different grades — primary, secondary, and so 
on. These school barracks should be made fire, wind, flood, and 
earthquake proof, of simple architecture, say Doric, only one story 
high, with no side windows, but lighted from above. They should 
be so constructed "that they would connect closely with a central 
audience-room. Each grade of schools would be a community by 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 83 

supplies a very valuable link in this chain of construc- 
tion. I take pleasure in quoting largely from his con- 
tribution. 

itself and under one management. Playgrounds would be at- 
tached to each group of buildings. Broad verandas on either side 
of the school barracks would afford ample shelter from sun and 
rain. Closely adjoining each group of barracks would be the 
industrial barracks, which, of course, would include the indus- 
trial kitchen to provide the noon lunch for the scholars, complete 
in its equipment for industrial education suitable to each school 
department. 

" All these school barracks throughout the park should be 
lighted, heated, ventilated, swept, dusted, and disinfected by one 
source of power, probably electricity applied to machinery and 
labor-saving devices. 

"The grounds of this school park should be laid out aestheti- 
cally, yet be one grand kindergarten adapted to the needs of the 
schools in all the grades, with broad and extensive walks and 
avenues for exercise, obsex'vation, and military drill, with abun- 
dance of room for field sports for the older scholars, with arbore- 
tum, herbarium, zoological garden, museum, and, last but not 
least, a miniature ranch or garden complete in detail, systemati- 
cally and scientifically conducted. 

" All the labour in the industrial department and in the park 
should be done, as far as possible and practicable, by details of 
scholars under qualified instructors in outdoor work and play, 
especially the play, when the unconscious instruction should be 
omnipresent and omnipotent — a great desideratum in our public 
schools to-day. 

" This school park should be made accessible to the whole city 
by a system of electric railways that would gridiron the city at 
suitable distances apart. This system of free transportation of 
scholars must be an exclusive annex of the school park and belong 
exclusively to the city. These school cars will be especially 
adapted to school work, lighted from above and not on the sides, 
which are closed. These cars, when they reach the barracks, can, 
if necessary, be turned into an annex to the school barracks as 



84 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

We are now ready to put together many eo-orJi- 
nating parts from these described ideals in our gen- 
eral specifications for the building of an ideal school. 

Plans for an Ideal School Building. — The school 
site should be high and dry, with perfect natural drain- 
age for its own waters, but receiving nothing from 
higher land. The sub-soil should be natural and not 
artificial, containing no organic matter. It should be in 
character of gravel, marl, lime, and sand ingredient, and 

recitation rooms or as the school room itself. They could be used 
in the evening for free night schools all over the city — in a word, 
they are a school room on wheels. The central power for moving 
the cars should be located in the park, which also would furnish 
the power required within tlie park. The conductors and motor- 
men should be qualified by education and character to be instruc- 
tors in the school room or outside of it when the schools are in 
session. 

" All the official business of the Board of Education would be 
done in the park or immediately adjoining, also the boarding 
houses for teachers and outside instructors. Of course, the police 
regulations must necessarily be very strict ; no use of tobacco, 
intoxicating liquor, profanity, obscenity, or immorality of any 
kind that would furnish in any way a demoralizing object-lesson 
to scholars or teachers, could possibly be allowed. 

" With regard to the expense of such a change, if the scliool- 
park system were adopted, the present school buildings could be 
sold. The proceeds, together with the increased values of the 
school park and of surrounding properties resulting from improve- 
ments made in the park, would be more than adequate for cost of 
park, buildings, cars, and school-railway system. Whatever the 
first cost, current expenses of public schools would be greatly 
reduced, better health of pupils would result from improved 
hygienic plans, and the problem of industrial public schools would 
be solved." (W. F. Wheeler, in Los Angeles Evening Express, 
October 20, 1894.) 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 85 

sliould be tested by boring. In the lang'uage of Dr. 
Galton,* " A porous sub-soil not encumbered with 
vegetation and protected from impurities, with a good 
fall for drainage, not receiving or retaining the water 
from any higher ground, and the prevailing winds blow- 
ing over no marshy or unwholesome ground, will, as a 
general rule, afford the greatest amount of protection 
from disease of which the climate will admit." The 
exposure should be to the southeast. 

On such a site should be the buildings, the play- 
grounds, and the gardens of the school. 

The building itself should face the southeast,! as 
this arrangement carries the sun-bath to every room, 
and, with the changes of the day, gives the degrees of 
direct light and shade adapted to the usual school 
hours. 

The foundations could not be better built than on 
arches of solid masonry, as proposed by Dr. Richardson.;]; 

The walls of the building should be of brick, imper- 
vious to moisture or absorption of organic refuse. The 
porosity of ordinary building materials is much greater 
than is generally supposed. If to a large block of 
sandstone two pieces of gas pipe are attached, but on 
opposite sides and perpendicular to the sides, and the 
exterior of the sandstone is coated with thick paint, so 
that the paint forms an air-tight box with the only 
openings through the gas pipes, and one pipe is con- 
nected with a supply of gas, the porosity of the stone is 



* Galton's Healthy Hospitals, p. 29. 
f Kotelmann's School Hvfriene, p. 36. 
} Richardson's Hygeia, a City of Health. 



86 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

sufficient to permit a very good burning flame on the 
other side of the block, even if the intervening tliick- 
ness measures a foot or more. It is also possible to 
affect the flame of a candle by blowing with a small 
bellows through a dry brick wall. 

Galton tells of an experiment made in 'New York 
by Putnam, which " showed that with every means 
taken to prevent porosity or cracks, the inflow through 
the walls amounted to nearly 5,400 cubic feet per hour 
in a room containing only a little over 3,000 cubic feet 
of air space, when the outside air was about 36° Fahr., 
and that inside varied 72° to 90° Fahr." * 

This in itself would not be bad, because of its help 
to ventilation; but, when these porous walls become 
filled with stagnant moisture, effluvia, and other un- 
wholesome absorptions, their use for school-houses of 
health becomes questionable. 

The walls, therefore, might well be of glazed brick 
without, and of vitrified tile, of soft pleasing tint, 
within. All the wood-work should be of hard wood, and 
the floors in particular be close in grain, with no cracks, 
and rendered sanitary and easily cleansed by treatment 
with beeswax and turpentine. For rooms like those 
here described — i. e., of one story f — a metallic ceiling, 
properly painted, would answer very well. There should 
be no stud partitions, but wherever the same might 
be unavoidable they should be made of metallic lath 
and non-porous cement. 

* Galton's Healthy Hospitals, p. 56. 

f For intermediate ceiling^s of buildings of more than one story 
special deadening must be used, or the ordinary metallic ceiling 
will make a noisy sounding-board. 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 87 

All sharp angles in corners and edges should be 
avoided by using concave surfaces, in order to facilitate 
perfect cleaning. The jambs of windows and doors 
should also be rounded. The doors should be equipped 
with transoms and glass panels and open toward the cor- 
ridors. A room so constructed would present no ab- 
sorbing surfaces, and could be easily cleansed in en- 
tirety. When we reflect that, according to Hesse,* 
35,000 bacteria have been found in every cubic metre of 
air of a school room at the end of the session; and, ac- 
cording to Ignatieff,f that a pupil would thus in a five 
hours' session inhale 44,655 germs; and that Eris- 
mann J has found many kinds of micro-organisms and 
moulds in the school room; and that the death of cer- 
tain animals has been produced* by injection of 
liquids saturated with condensed vapours carrying the 
toxic products of the school room — it seems rational 
that we should adopt, for the preservation of the 
health of the children, the same measures deemed 
necessary in our better hospitals. Accumulations of 
carbonic-acid gas are certainly to be avoided; but 
even these are not nearly so dangerous to certain 
susceptible children as other toxic products not so 
easily detected. 

The buildings should be of one story only. There 
should be no basement rooms of any kind; but the 
superstructure should rest on solid arches of masonry, 
thoroughly ventilated, warmed, and kept perfectly 
dry. The ceilings, for a building of this character, 



* Kotehnann's School Plygiene, pp. 65-73. 
t Ibid. t Ibid. # Ibid. 



88 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

should be, in general, fourteen feet high, or more if 
the size of the room will permit good acoustic prop- 
erties.* 

The room should open into a continuous outer cor- 
ridor or colonnade, inclosed with glass during the win- 
ter time, but open during the spring, summer, and 
autumn. 

The illumination of the school room should be from 
above, which is the plan decreed by Nature and to which 
the eye is adjusted. Through milk-white, translucent 
glass the light should be flooded into the room by ceil- 
ing areas suflEiciently large and well-distributed to reach 
equally every portion of the room and without possibil- 
ity of shadow. This is rendered possible by the build- 
ings being of one story only. 

The walls should be entirely w^ithout reflection, and 
carry a soft shade of light green. f If because of any 
necessity the room can not be so well flooded with 
light, the shade of the wall colour might well be a 
light buff. 

The crayon boards should be of dark-green composi- 
tion, or of natural slate, blue-black, | with fine texture 
and without grit. The height above the floor should 
be from two feet four inches in the primary rooms to 

* The height of ceiling must also be largely dependent on the 
character of the warming apparatus and air circulation. Archi- 
tects usually estimate that a room of sixteen feet ceiling requires 
twice as much heat as a room of twelve feet ceiling, or even 
more. 

f The Brickbuilder, vol. vi, p. 267. 

:j: Kotelinann's School Hygiene, p. 162. Hall's Health of School 
Children, p. 17. 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. g9 

three feet in the higher rooms; tlie width sliould be 
four feet six inches. Tlie clialk receiver sliould be two 
inches wide, and should not filtrate the dust into hid- 
den receptacles, unless connected with exhaust. No 
crayon should be used which will create dust. The 
slate should be cleansed with a wet sponge. Kotel- 
mann prefers crayon of a pale yellow,* which would be 
very good for the dark-green surface. The teacher's 
crayon board should be balanced by weights, and rise 
and fall in order to preserve the line of writing at 
shoulder level, as in many excellent schools of Conti- 
nental Europe, particularly the new Cantonal Normal 
School of Lausanne, Switzerland. There should be no 
side windows in the room for illuminating purposes, 
but on the side opening into the corridor or colonnade 
there should be windows through which the children 
can look out on the school gardens. There might also 
be overhead openings on opposite sides of the room 
for natural ventilation in very warm weather, but these 
should be closed and screened at other times. In rooms 
requiring direct sunlight for projection, there should 
certainly be window openings or other apertures on 
the side of proper exposure. 

By this plan of illumination it will be seen that the 
light is entirely from overhead, which is Nature's plan. 
There is no direct sunlight, and yet the room is flooded 
with pure Avhite light, well distributed and nearly free 
from conflicting shadows. 

Through views commanding the gardens the child 
still looks out on the natural world, but these corridor 

* Kotelmann's School Hygiene, p. 168. 



90 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

windows are shaded, and are overcome by. the superior 
flood of light from above. 

The ventilation of the room should be effecteilr 
through walls that breathe. The walls in Eichard- 
son's Hygeia are honeycombed by the bricks, imperme- 
able to water, being perforated transversely witli>i 
wedge-shaped opening at each end into which no mortar 
is inserted, and with all openings communicating into 
each other. The outer layer of brick is glazed and pre- 
sents an unbroken surface. The air admitted into this 
honeycomb should be taken from higher levels and not 
from the ground, as in all ordinary methods. The 
warming of the building should be by tempering the 
honeycombed air by electric heaters in the walls.* The 
air, admitted through all walls at heights above the 
head level, should be removed by equally well-dis- 
tributed openings in the floor by mechanical exhaust. 
In summer time the air should be cooled by mechanical 
process, giving the negative of our present winter ne- 
cessities. 

The corridors also should be mechanically warmed 
and ventilated during the time of their winter inclosure. 
Each room should have its adjacent cloak-room, thor- 
oughly warmed and subject to exhaust. In like manner 
the closet and lavatory system should be by accommo- 
dations in near-at-hand parts of the building. The 

* The wonderful development of electricity and the ease of its 
distribution by wires render perfectly feasible this means of uni- 
form distribution of warmth in buildings. The marvellous dis- 
coveries in liquid air and its application are very suggestive for 
expedients in the reversal in summer of our present methods of 
tempering the winter air. 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 91 

usual method of herding children into closets is objec- 
tionable. Children are entitled to some privacy as well 
as their elders, and besides such places should be for 
their use at any desired time and not at the general 
recess, when the inclination to play and to avoid pub- 
licity tempts them to neglect and to irregularity in 
habits. The lavatories and closets should be finisned in 
white marble with white enamelled upper walls, and 
should be flooded with direct sunshine and thoroughly 
ventilated. They should open into the cloak-rooms. 
The lavatories should contain drinking water, distilled, 
free from lead, and supplied at proper temperature. 
The cloak-rooms should be separated for boys and girls 
and be equipped with individual lockers. 

The building should have its studios, laboratories, 
and workshops grouped, adapted, and equipped for 
their respective purposes ; its teachers' rooms ; its play 
room and open court ; gymnasium and drill hall ; 
libraries ; auditorium ; art corridor ; lunch rooms ; plant 
and animal room. Without, it should have its gardens, 
playgrounds, and model park. As far as possible the 
school premises should constitute a miniature world. 

The equipment of each room should be adapted to 
its specific function. Why should all rooms be equipped 
alike? Certainly it should not be because of the pov- 
erty of inventive mind. In any given school room the 
furniture should not be such as to demand uniformity 
of posture. If a child must have much of his school 
indoors, he should be permitted to stand up, or sit down, 
or to move, as Nature prompts him. This question of 
furnishings will be discussed at greater length fur- 
ther on. 



92 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

The building and its appurtenances should be such 
as to appeal to the artistic sense. The architecture 
should be simple but effective. Within, restful colour- 
ing, pictures of art, artistic decorations and curios, 
aquaria, and graceful flowers; without, the climbing 
vine, the fountain and its living life, here and there an 
heroic statue. These, with the graceful hills, the native 
forests, the growing fields, the limpid streams, and 
miniature lake, and their abounding life, and all the 
surroundings of the park, should make the school a 
place of beauty and imparted ideals. 

" Yes," remarks Mr. Taxpayer, " but how about get- 
ting so much ground for the school? It seems to me 
your park calls for the expenditure of a good deal of 
money." 

Perhaps it may, but we have no difficulty in getting 
sufficient acreage for our stock farms, and that too 
often very close to our cities. However, further on 
it will be shown that the expense would be really not 
as great as it may seem. 

Even if the full plan of the larger school park can 
not be realized, there are many ways of reaching these 
ideals on a smaller scale right in the heart of our cities. 

Many delightful schools of this kind are already 
in operation. Eeference has already been macle to the 
scliools of Andover, Mass. Madame Clavcrie's beautiful 
Casa de Rosas at Los Angeles, Cal., is a delightful exam- 
ple of what may be done in this way. Here, perhaps, 
was the most artistic school ever designed in America. 
The building was largely one story, and in architecture 
an adaptation of the Moorish, which has expressed itself 
so well in southern California. Within, the rooms were 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 93 

chaste in soft colouring, in graceful outlines, adapted 
furnishings and suggestive decorations. The building 
faced both outward and inward, a delightful inner court 
of beautiful outlines, fountain, and semi-tropical vegeta- 
tion being formed by the surrounding buildings. With- 
out the building were the children's gardens and a cano- 
pied playground, with climbing vines almost covering 
the outer walls, while the boundaries of the school 
premises were walks of beautiful pepper-trees, hedges 
of roses, and orange orchards. The whole school, in 
all its correlating parts and effective unity, was the 
dream of a poet, the ideal of an educator, and the reali- 
zation of years of sacrifice and toil. The name Casa 
de Eosas is no more beautiful and effective than was this 
delightful school in glorious ideals and inspiration in 
the days of its suggestive career. That its earnest 
creator should pay the penalty that marks the lives of 
those who live to present ideals by which evolution 
reaches its more perfect realization, is the repeated 
story, many times told in the history of an advancing 
world. Happy were the children who breathed the de- 
lightful air of this suggestive school, and many will be 
the schools that have caught inspiration from the Casa 
de Rosas. 

In larger and more magnificent ways the great Stan- 
ford University is the most suggestive style of archi- 
tecture, perhaps, in the world, for adaptation to the 
purposes of an ideal school. It is itself an adaptation 
of the mission architecture of southern California, and • 
monumentalizes these glorious ideals which should be 
the pride of all America. The missions themselves were 
great industrial schools for the elevation of the children 



94 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

of Nature, and suggest much for utilization in a school 
that should be equally broad in its purposes. Here, 
at Stanford, in the centre, is a great oblong quadrangle, 
586 feet long and 246 feet wide, containing three and 
a quarter acres, paved with asphalt and ornamented 
with fountains and clumps of effective vegetation. All 
around this inner quadrangle or patio is a continuous 
colonnade of noble arches and rich colouring, the colon- 
nade making a continuous walk of nearly half a mile. 
Without this colonnade, and opening on it, are the 
groupings of class rooms, laboratories, libraries, lecture 
rooms, administration offices, etc., all one story in 
height. The roofing is of rich red tile, giving an effect- 
ive but artistic capping to this most unique school struc- 
ture in all the world. Between the several groupings 
of departmental rooms, but through continuous arches 
of the beautiful colonnade, are the entrances, foot 
walks, and driveways to the open patio. 

Without the first quadrangle, but widely separated 
from it, is now building a second quadrangle of archi- 
tecture entirely inclosing the first; and at the ends of 
the second quadrangle are designed other groupings of 
longitudinal buildings. The original plan provides for 
indefinite expansion, without crowding or distortion. 
Surrounding this ideal series of structures is the great 
Stanford farm, with here and there other buildings of 
greater height, for museum, gymnasia, chapel, mechan- 
ic arts hall, dormitories, and dwellings. Stanford Uni- 
versity is the practical realization of great but new 
ideals in school architecture, which with much profit 
may be adapted for the specific purposes of other educa- 
tional institutions. 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 95 

Gathering together these suggestions of Dr. Eich- 
ardson's City of Health, the schools of Andover, the 
Pestalozzi-Froebel House, Abbotsholme, the • George 
Junior Eepublic, the McDonogh Farm School, the 
Jacob Tome Institute, the Casa de Kosas, and the real- 
ized great Stanford University, and incorporating the 
fundamental specifications already presented, let us 
see now if we can not construct a school plant of greater 
efficiency in promoting the educational interests of the 
child. 

General Deductions. 

The plan comprehends a school system of five thou- 
sand children. By reference to a subsequent chapter, 
it will be understood that the plan of organization is 
to do away with the mechanical grading of schools into 
twelve grades, which never have corresponded to their 
original intention, and to substitute a grouping into 
four departments, based largely on the great nascent 
periods of growth. These departments may be known 
as the play school, the elementary school, the interme- 
diate school, and the high school or gymnasium. Pref- 
erably, each department is to be accommodated in its 
own building. If the school is perfect, it will better hold 
its constituency in health and in culture. This would 
result in their being as many, or almost as many, in 
the high school as in the lower schools. To whatever 
extent it is not perfect, reduction must be made in each 
succeeding stage of work. If the city contains more 
than 5,000 children — say 20,000 — the number of build- 
ings can be quadrupled. If the number is a fraction of 



96 



AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 



5,000, the quadrangles, in number or in size, can be 
increased or diminished proportionatel3^ 

DESIGN FOR A PLAY SCHOOL AND ALSO FOE 

A PRIMARY SCHOOL. 

56 School Rooms— 24 Children per Room— Total, 1,344 Children. 

park! P a RJ< 





































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PARK PARK 

Plan capable of indefinite expansion. 

A building of this design, either for the kinder- 
garten or play school, or for the elementary (or alpha- 
betic) school, should be located in the centre of a sec- 
tion of the park, the section containing not less than 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 97 

ten acres. The building would cover an area 372 feet 
by 380 feet. If the courts between the quadrangles 
could be greater, it would be all the better. The outer 
wall of each quadrangle is solid and gives a definite 
boundary to the more valuable school property. This 
outer wall is of glazed brick of cream colour, and is 
made artistic by architectural relief and a covering of 
vines. For the clinging of the vines the glazed walls in 
such sections should be trellised. 

As will be seen, the plan of architecture compre- 
hends an inner central building, surrounded by a garden 
court not less than forty feet wide. Around this inner 
court is the first school quadrangle, with continuous 
corridor or colonnade facing inward. Separated by 
another court, also forty feet wide or more, is the sec- 
ond quadrangle of buildings, with corridor or colonnade 
also facing inward. 

The school rooms are approximately 28 by 32 feet, 
are illuminated from overhead, and otherwise finished, 
ventilated, and warmed as previously described in this 
chapter. The school rooms have their convenient ward- 
robes and lavatories, not here represented, but in loca- 
tions elsewhere suggested. 

The school rooms look out, through interior win- 
dows and doors, on the broad corridor, and command 
views of the inner gardens and vine-covered walls be- 
yond. During the winter time these corridors are in- 
closed in glass and make the winter conservatories ; but 
in the milder months they are open and constitute con- 
tinuous colonnades. 

The gardens are not less than forty feet wide, have 
their broad mid-walks with fountains and aquaria at 



98 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

each corner, and their beds for culture assigned to each 
class and pupil. Here and there are statuary and 
houses for pet animals. In the gardens also should be 
abundant places for and invitations to the birds to 
build their nests. Within the central patio or garden 
court is the large stormy-day play room, which, in the 
buildings designed for older pupils, is the gymnasium, 
but here is also used, as occasions may require, for an 
auditorium and exhibition hall. The administration 
offices might be in this central building. 

The passages from building to building are through 
covered pavilions which are inclosed in winter time. 
There are also exits at other points, as indicated in the 
design. 

This design omits details and is not submitted in 
hard-and-fast lines, but merely as suggestion for adap- 
tation as conditions may deem advisable. 

The diagonal facing of the building permits the 
sunshine to reach all the gardens and every corridor. 
The rooms, illuminated from above, are flooded with 
light almost as constant and abundant as that of the 
outer world. 

It will be remembered that the rooms are all of one 
story and are built on well-ventilated and warmed arch- 
ways of solid masonry. There are no basement rooms 
and no stairways. 

Without the building is the park, of sloping sward, 
forest and fruit trees, running water, pavilions, play- 
grounds, gardens, etc. There are no " keep-off-the- 
grass " signs. 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 99 

Design for Grammar School or High School. 

The quadrangle architecture is also designed for a 
school of older pupils, with certain modifications. The 
inner building should contain gymnasiums, instead of 
play room, with baths and swimming pools in direct 
connection. The iimer building also should contain an 
ever-ready auditorium, smaller lecture rooms, music 
room, and the administration offices. 

The inner quadrangle might face outward and to- 
ward the exterior quadrangle. This would transform 
the inner court into a gymnasium court, where the pre- 
scribed physical exercises could be conducted in the open 
air. As this inner court would then be surrounded by 
solid walls, basket-ball and other kindred games could 
here be immediately under the eye of the physical 
director; although still better fields for these amuse- 
ments would be provided in the school park. The sec- 
ond court might well be wider than in the play school, 
preferably eighty feet. 

The central building also should be crowned with an 
observatory for astronomical and meteorological pur- 
poses, and a horticultural hall might be provided, al- 
though this latter is not especially advisable, as the 
inner gardens and the field gardens in the summer and 
the winter corridors present abundant opportunity for 
plant culture, excepting of larger tropical forms. 

The park without should contain larger gardens and 
playgrounds for team work and free exercises. It should 
also have its well-directed fields for applied sciences and 
constructive exercises, expressing themselves in experi- 
mental agriculture, electric stations, hydraulics, kite- 

LofC. 



100 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

flying, weather bureaus, house construction, bridge- 
building, etc. 

" I admit," says Dr. Economist, " the great beauty 
and desirability of a school so located and constructed. 
It would return the school to its legitimate place in the 
field of Nature. It would bless the children with soil 
in which to dig and plant, with animated life to study, 
an abundance of pure air, sunlight, and playground, and 
a hundred other desirable things denied in the barren 
life of most schools. Undoubtedly the children would 
enjoy better health under this and other provisions 
which, I infer, you propose to further present ; but that 
which perplexes me is liow you are going to give such a 
school to the children in ovr thiclcly populated cities." 

In the original planning of a city the first thing to 
be thought of should be the children and their proper 
culture. Adequate school premises should be provided; 
and tributary to these should be all the other industries 
of life, which certainly have no higher purpose in man's 
ambition than to confer wealth on the rising generation. 
Why should there not be in every city a broad reserva- 
tion like the Executive Park in the city of Washington, 
or like the Boston Common, or the City Park in Albany, 
devoted to the culture of children? Or what other 
better way is there of utilizing our present city parks 
for the higher purposes of man? Such appropriation 
would only add to the beauty of the parks themselves, 
and would make them none the less the pride and 
enjoyment of the people. 

But the founders of cities are not always so far-see- 
ing or economic in their planning. We must reconstruct 
the city as it is. We might utilize our central parks; 



GENERAL PLAN FOR A SCHOOL COMMUNITY. 
5,000 pupils. 



w 



HIGH SCHOOL PARK 


FIELD 
SPORTS 

6 ACRES 


GRAMMAR SCHOOL PARK 




HIGH 
SCHOOL 






GRAMMAR 
SCHOOL 




10 ACRES 




10 ACRES 


GARDENS 
6 ACRES 


ADMIN- 
ISTRATION 

2)4 ACRES 


GARDENS 
6 ACRES 


PRIMAR 


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LPARK 


LAKE 

PARK 

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GEOGRAPHIC 

WORLD 

5 ACRES 


PLAY SCHOOL PARK 




PRIMARY 
SCHOOL 






PLAY 
SCHOOL 






10 ACRES 




10 ACRES 





S FRONT '- 

Suggestion for grouping of buildings on a general school park. 
Plan subject to modification or indefinite expansion. Each 
building an adaptation of design presented on page 96, ac- 
cording to characteristic purposes of the play school, the 
primary school, the grammar school, and the high school. 
The administration building could contain offices, confei'ence 
rooms, normal department, general library, lecture and music 
hall, heating and lighting plant, master clock, etc. Trans- 
portation by city ownership of street railways. For argu- 
ment and specifications see Chapters IV, V, VI, and VII. 

101 



102 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

or, better still, we could choose for our school plant 
desirable property without the city but in close prox- 
imity. This would not have been possible a few years 
since; but in this day of electric-car service there are 
no obstacles in the way of its effective operation. The 
city, by municipal ownership, by reservation in fran- 
chise or by contract, could well afford to provide this 
most necessary part in a desirable education. If the 
endowed public-school system provided by private enter- 
prise at the Jacob Tome Institute can thus care for, as 
their plans contemplate, two thousand pupils by the 
building of an electric railway, certainly the State or 
city should also be abundantly able to provide for 
its own. • 

With the school so far removed from the homes, how 
would the children get their noonday meal? Would it 
he hy a school lunch? 

Yes, but a much better lunch than that furnished 
in most schools. One of the great problems in the cul- 
ture of children is the food question. How shall the 
children receive the nutriment demanded by the stages 
of their growth and the nature of their work? The 
school dinner is a perfectly legitimate part of the child's 
culture. The school should also issue suggestions to 
the home concerning the other meals and related 
subjects. 

" It seems to me," remarks Mr. Taxpayer, " that 
the plan of buildings you present, with their parks of 
from ten to one hundred acres or more, their extended 
buildings and artistic surroundings, would cost a great 
deal of money. How would the cost of such a school 
plant compare with that of our present schools?" 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 103 

The increased cost would not be so much as it 
seems. The abandonment of valuable school property 
in the heart of the city, and generally in locations of 
great desirability, would of itself go far toward the 
purchase of the school parks and the erection of 
buildings. Indeed, in many instances, it would more 
than cover the entire expenditure. The cost of an ordi- 
nary building is greatly increased by its lofty super- 
structure, and sometimes there is much expended in the 
external finish of a building which is not at all desirable 
for school purposes. The transportation difficulty, to 
whatever extent it presents itself, could be effected by 
municipal ownership or by ordinance just as well as 
ordinary transportation can be reduced in fare from 
five to three cents. The cost for teachers, increased by 
reduction of schools to twenty-four children, which is 
eminently desirable, and by the employment of better 
teachers, would be greater. But, after all, what are we 
living for if not for our children? Why does the wage- 
earner toil day after day, and the capitalist store up his 
money, if it is not to confer wealth upon the children? 
And what wealth is there that can for a moment be 
compared with glorious health, and the developing 
power which comes from a well-trained mind? 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE SCOPE OF THE SCHOOL. 

A PLANT, located, built, and furnished as has been 
described, would equip our school to meet the full mis- 
sion demanded by modern life. 

Every one of the traditional studies would be en- 
riched by an opportunity never before offered by the 
school. The losses by reversion from the rural life to 
that of the city would be partly overcome. The farm, 
with its many lessons from Nature and its many trades 
and occupations possible, would be rich in instructive 
exercises. The gardens would bring back the forgotten 
touch with the soil, and the delights of animal life 
would awaken new human interest. 

It would now be possible to group pupils more ac- 
cording to interests and abilities. Then, for larger 
illustration and general culture, opportunities for use 
of lantern projection or for gatherings in the assembly 
hall would be immediately at hand. A hundred chil- 
dren, a thousand children of approximately the same 
age, would be at a moment's command for a music 
exercise. Scattered in their cottage quarters in the 
great quadrangles, the pupils might all be at individual 
work with space and group separation far greater than 
104 



THE SCOPE OP THE SCHOOL. 105 

in the usual school; but yet orderly massing of large 
numbers for the lecture, the concert and the general 
exercise would be always at command. How often the 
superintendent has wished to meet the children of his 
entire city, grade by grade, but has always been denied 
because of distances I 

Here also would be opportunity for gymnasium drill 
under favourable conditions, and for return to the old- 
time recess denied the child of the modern school. The 
complete bath house at Brookline, Mass., by this cen- 
tralization now becomes a desirable adjunct easily real- 
ized. But still greater in possibility would be the com- 
prehensive school library which must be a cardinal fac- 
tor in the ideal school. 

The traditional school has opened its doors at nine 
o'clock in the morning and closed them at four o'clock 
in the afternoon. In the cities the high-school session 
has been even shorter. In many instances the closing of 
the school has been hastened to catch certain cars ; and 
in a moment the great building with its valuable equip- 
ment is silent and empty. The pupils have been re- 
quired to do much preparation of work at home, fre- 
quently at great disadvantage and under unfavourable 
circumstances. 

These limited hours of school accessibility were all 
very well for the days of the rural school when the con- 
stituency was small and scattered; but the conditions 
and demands of modern life are very different. Be- 
cause the schools have been largely closed, other 
agencies have been rendered necessary. The institu- 
tional church and the various societies of community 
improvement have been called upon to do a work which 



106 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

properly belongs to the school. The Young Men's 
Christian Association, the Young Men's Christian 
Union, the Young Women's Christian Association, the 
guilds and sodalities, the bo3rs' clubs and the women's 
clubs, have been performing a valuable work which lies 
directly in the province of the public school. The large 
and prosperous commercial schools in our cities estab- 
lish also the fact that, the school has not been meeting 
its entire responsibility.* Wherever in the community 
there is a sufficient number of persons desiring educa- 
tional facilities, right then and there is the mission of 
the school, no matter what the age or the attainment of 
the student may be. This opens up a wide field of use- 
fulness for the evening school. Almost every city, 
under proper organization, can gather as many pupils 
in the evening classes as in the higher classes of the day 
school. AVith the generous equipment now the posses- 
sion of the average school, this can be done at com- 
paratively small cost; and under the plan proposed in 
our centralized plant how much better it could be done! 
Not only the evening classes for investigation and 
study are the legitimate work of the public schools, but 
the school should also be the centre for all kinds of 
literary endeavour. The literary clubs could well be 
furnished their places of meeting in close proximity 
to the helpful library; and they should be directed in 
their endeavours. Classes in the afternoons for older 
persons — in literature, history, science, physical culture, 

* The writer has oflRci.al information to show that a single cor- 
respondence school in the United States pays annually over $80,000 
in postage, to which might be added a similar amount for return 
communications. 



THE SCOPE OP THE SCHOOL. 107 

art, cooking, and sewing — would be a very valuable part 
of the work. The directors and heads of departments 
and of the great library could suggest and perhaps direct 
an important work which would be much appreciated. 

Then there is the field of the instructive lecture. 
Practical experiment has fully demonstrated that popu- 
lar science and instruction, presented in attractive ways, 
will reach people who ordinarily never come under the 
influence of the lecture. The whole field of the Chau- 
tauqua movement and of university extension is full 
of suggestion for the development of this important 
work in bringing value to the community. The school 
must comprehend the community. 

An annual music festival, made gloriously possible 
by the centralization of schools, art exliibits, the pres- 
entation of classic music by great artists, the illus- 
trated lecture of travel and science, the opportunity of 
the children to meet and to hear great men who would 
be attracted to such a school — all of these would be 
direct possibilities. 

Then there is the vacation school for children de- 
siring to escape from the heat of the city and to be en- 
gaged in profitable and congenial employment. This 
would maintain the care of the gardens during the sum- 
mer. The work of Johnson at Andover, in particular, 
is very suggestive for what could be done on this great 
farm school. 

The very fact of centralization of equipment and 
the gathering of experts, as will be later described, 
would open up a field of high-school extension which 
should be occupied. To whatever extent deserving 
young people, who can not go away for their education, 



108 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

need opportunity for post-graduate work, they should 
have it. Unquestionably the school can furnish such 
instruction cheaper at home than these young people 
can get it by going away. Whenever in a school of tliis 
character this movement grows in constituency suffi- 
ciently to take the place of the college it will be the 
legitimate province of the public school to perform that 
function. This will be discussed later on. 

The school, then, in what it offers should compre- 
hend the community. Whatever it can do to extend 
educational opportunity should be freely given. The 
doors should be, practically, always open; and whoever 
knocks at the temple of learning should find a most 
cordial welcome. 

Ee-enforcing the work of the superintendent and 
teachers, should stand the well-organized Education 
Society. The magnificent work which has been done 
at Brookline, Mass., and which has been extending it- 
self effectively in Philadelphia, Pa., Brooklyn, N. Y., 
Newark, X. J., Princeton, N. J., Pittsburg, Pa., Xew 
Haven, Conn., Boston, Mass., JSTew York, iSJ". Y., New- 
ton, Mass., Northampton, Mass., New Bedford, Mass., 
Barre, Mass., Belmont, Mass., Yonkers, N. Y., Den- 
ver, Colo., and other cities, is too important not to be 
utilized in support of the larger usefulness of the 
school. Superintendent Button has done much to make 
his Brookline schools famous; but the crowning master- 
piece of his useful work has been this great demonstra- 
tion of how the forces of the community may be corre- 
lated for effective advance work. 

This, then, outlines the larger province of the school, 
to which the people would respond with great apprecia- 



THE SCOPE OP THE SCHOOL. 109 

tion. There are several reasons why the people have 
sometimes been slow in furnishing adequate support 
to the schools of the past. First, there has been little 
opportunity to appreciate the magnitude of the city 
school work, because of the scattered condition of the 
many plants. Second, the work itself has been of lim- 
ited efficiency. The parent has been annoyed too often 
by the doctrine that the home is responsible for the 
teacher's work. Third, the school has not extended very 
generous help to a large constituency of persons who 
have desired earnest educational assistance outside the 
usual hours and grades and curriculum of the formal 
school. The school has been too limited in its scope 
of usefulness. Fourth, the school-house has not been, 
to any considerable extent, the meeting place of the 
people. The minister owes his greater influence among 
his people over that wielded by the superintendent, and 
also his opportunity to be better understood, largely to 
the fact that he has so much greater opportunity to 
come in contact with the people, to gather them into a 
responsive, co-operating working body. Every gathering 
of the people at the school-house during the usual school 
hours, or for an evening lecture or entertainment, is an 
effective movement in the interests of better schools. It 
pays to bring the people into contact with school influ- 
ences, be it only in gathering them together for some- 
thing of value or enjoyment in the school hall. The sug- 
gestion of the school's interests by the school's sur- 
roundings, the democratic feeling of being an integral 
part of the work itself, and the exchange of appreciative 
remarks with others in the same school gathering, all 
foster a condition of personal pride and co-operation 



110 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

that is very helpful in the making of an advance school. 
Indeed, there is no way of carrying forward progressive 
work to any goodly degree of leadership, excepting as 
the forces of the community are thus co-ordinated. 

The people are always proud of a good school, the 
purposes of which they can see and realize. The cen- 
tralization of all the schools in a general school park 
would be an effective object-lesson which, re-enforced 
by the greater usefulness of the school outside older 
lines, would bring the school interests to the minds 
and hearts of the people. Better equipment would be 
supplied because its application would be seen. Better 
teachers would be furnished because the adults as well 
as the children would gain from their instruction. Bet- 
ter official representation of the people would be elected 
because the people themselves met in more frequent and 
intelligent confenences concerning the welfare of the 
school. The forces of the community must be corre- 
lated ; the school must be more comprehensive ; the 
school plant must be enriched by greater centralization ; 
the doors must be open to " whosoever will " ; the people 
must meet more frequently to uphold the hands of their 
educational leaders. The results of such intelligent 
co-operation in a democracy can be only one thing : 
The people will be proud of their schools and will carry 
forward the work as has never yet been done in the his- 
tory of the world. 

Bibliography. — Dutton's Social Phases in Education. Sciul- 
der's The Schoolhouse as a Centre (Atlantic Monthly, vol. Ixxvii). 
Search's The Larger High School, doflication of the Holyoke 
High School (School Review, April, 1900). 



CHAPTER yil. 

THE COURSE OE STUDY. 

" Of all subjects calculated to call forth a pupil's own 
eflEorts, those which give him something to do have the prefer- 
ence over those which merely give him something to say." 
(Dr. Andrew Bell.) 

Whatever may be the general thought concerning 
the feasibility of centralizing all the schools of the city 
in a general park, or in several parks, it will be evident 
that the discussion is now gradually approaching de- 
tails of great value in the conduct of the school. The 
interest of teachers, therefore, will be especially di- 
rected to the question of how to get rid of the difficulties 
in the course of study. 

Periods of Growth. — Probably the most promising 
contribution of child-study to the building of the better 
school is coming from the discovery that the growth 
of the child is not one of uninterrupted progression. 
Great stages or periods of growth, widely differing from 
each other in character, are characteristic of the phys- 
ical development from the cradle to manhood. Attend- 
ant upon these stages are certain nascent periods of 
budding forth, which determine studies best calculated 

111 



112 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

for mind culture and the times of easiest accora' 
plisliment.* 

The first five years are characterized, in particular, 
by being the period of the most rapid brain growth. 
The brain gains nearly all its growth in the first seven 
years, and practically reaches its full maturity in size f 
at the age of eight or nine. The very fact that this is 
the period when the energies of life are largely centred 
in the storage of brain growth for the demands of later 
years, renders it highly important that the early life 
should be a life of freedom, with little to arrest the 
maturity of growth, which conditions so much to come. 
It is said that the child born with a large head is more 
likely to live. So, also, the child who has the oppor- 
tunity in his first seven or eight years for unarrested 
brain growth is safest for all the nei've strain that is 
to follow. This period, therefore, must be characterized 
by opportunity for rapid brain growth, nourishing food, 
abundance of sleep, plenty of free movement and play, 
and little demand upon the higher and finer brain areas, 
which do not develop so soon as the larger ones. 

The study of the heights of school children leads 
to some very serious reflections. Says Burk: J 

" Between six and seven years of age the American 
child measures about 44 or 45 inches. This is an in- 
crease of 24 to 25 inches for the first six years of life. 

* E. B. Bryan's Nascent Periods. Pedagogical Seminary, Oc- 
tober, 1900. 

t Donaldson's Growth of the Brain, p. 104. 

X Burk's From Fundamental to Accessory in the Develop- 
ment of the Nervous System. Pedagogical Seminary, vol. vi, pp. 
5-64. 



THE COURSE OP STUDY. 113 

... At twelve years of age American boys are on the 
average about 55 inches in height, an increase of 10 or 
11 inches for the six -preceding years. . . . Until ten to 
twelve years there is no material difference in the 
heights of the sexes ; but, during these two years, vary- 
ing with localities, the girls grow faster than the boys, 
and for two or three years following are actually taller. 
During the fourteenth or fifteenth year the rate mate- 
rially slackens, and though the girls grow slowly for 
two or three years longer, they have practically com- 
pleted their growth in height, generally at the age of 
fifteen. The period of accelerated growth in height in 
the case of boys begins during the period of twelve to 
fourteen, as a rule. They overtake the girls usually 
in the fifteenth year, and by the end of the sixteenth 
year or later their period of accelerated rate ends. 
... At the eleventh year or thereabouts there is 
no material difference in the heights of the two 
sexes." 

Dr. Bowditch found that at twelve and a half 
years, girls, as a rule, begin to grow faster than boys, 
and during the fourteenth year are about one inch taller 
than boys of the same age. At fourteen and a half 
years boys again become taller and continue to grow 
until nineteen. Girls have nearly completed their 
growth at fourteen and a half. 

By these references it will be noted that the most 
rapid growth of boys is between fourteen and sixteen, 
and of girls somewhat earlier. The wide variations 
in growth will be referred to later on. These periods 
or stages in average growth will be readily apparent 
from a study of the tables on pages 11-i and 115: 



114 



AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 



Dr. Bowditcli's Table, showing Average Heights and Weights of 
Boston School Children of American Parentage. Heights 
taken without Shoes ; Weight in Ordinary Dress.* 





BOYS. 


GIRLS. 


Age Last Birthday. 


Inches. 


Pounds. 


Inches. 


Pounds. 


5 years 


41.74 
44.10 
46.21 
48.16 
50.09 
52.21 
54.01 
55.78 
58.17 
61.08 
62.96 
65.58 
66-. 29 
66.76 


41.20 

45.14 

49.47 

54.43 

59.97 

66.62 

72.39 

79.82 

88.26 

99.28 

110.84 

123.07 

128.72 

132.71 


41.47 
43.66 
45.94 
48.07 
49.61 
51.78 
53.79 
57.16 
58.75 
60.32 
61.39 
61.72 
61 99 
62.01 


39.82 


6 •' 


43.81 


7 " 


48.02 


8 " 


52.93 


9 " 


57.52 


10 " 

11 " 


64.09 
70.26 


12 " 


81.35 


13 " 


91.18 


14 " 


100.33 


15 " 


108.42 


16 " 


112.97 


17 " 


115.84 V, 


18 " 


115.88 







Annual Average Increases in Height and Weight. {Warner, 
after Bowditch.) f 





BOYS. 


GIRLS. 


Age Last Birthday. 


Inches. 


Pounds. 


Inches. 


Pounds. 


5 years 


3!36 
2.11 
1.95 
1.93 
2.12 
1.80 
1.77 
2.39 
2.91 
1.88 
2.62 
.71 
.47 


3!94 

4.33 

4.96 

5.54 

6.65 

5.77 

7.43 

8.44 

11.02 

11.56 

12.83 

5.05 

3.99 


2^19 

2.28 

2.13 

1.54 

2.17 

2.01 

3.37 

1.59 

1.57 

1.07 

.33 

.27 

.02 




6 " 


3.99 


7 " 


4.21 


8 " 


4.91 


9 " 


4.59 


10 " 


6.57 


11 " 


6.17 


12 " 


11.09 


13 " 

14 " 


9.83 
9.14 


15 " 


8.10 


16 " 


4.55 


17 " 


2.87 


18 " 


.04 







* Warner's Study of Children, p. 31. f Ibid., p. 32. 



THE COURSE OF STUDY. 



115 



Average Weight of the Brain of Children in Ounces, Avoirdupois 
{After Dr. Boyd, as observed by Mm in 2,030 Cases, London.) * 



Age. 


Males. 


Females. 


Newborn 


11.67 
17.42 
21.30 
27.40 
33.25 
38.70 
40.23 
45.96 
48.54 


10.00 


Under 3 months 


15.94 


From 3 to 6 months 


19.76 


From 6 to 12 months 


25.70 


From 1 to 2 years 


29.80 


From 2 to 4 years 


34.97 


From 4 to 6 years. 


40.11 


From 7 to 14 years 


40.78 


From 14 to 20 years 


43.94 







Increase in Brain Weight with Age in Grammes. Encephalon 
iveighed entire with Pia. ( Vierordt.) f 






months. 


1 vea.r 


9" 


years 


3 




4 


<( 


5 


K 


6 


(I 


7 


i( 


8 


u 


9 


a 


10 


a 


11 


a 


I**, 


it 


13 


a 


14 


a 


15 


a 


16 


u 


17 


u 


18 


u 


19 


i( 


9,0 


li 


n 


a 


99, 


(( 


93 


n 


94 


a 


25 


« 



MALES. 


FEMALES. 


No. of cases. 


Brain. 


Brain. 


No. of cases. 


36 


381 


384 


38 


17 


945 


872 


11 


27 


1,025 


961 


28 


19 


1,108 


1,040 


23 


19 


1,330 


1,139 


13 


16 


1,263 


1,221 


19 


10 


1,359 


1,265 


10 


14 


1,348 


1,296 


8 


4 


1.377 


1,150 


9 


3 


1,425 


1.243 


1 


8 


1,408 


1.284 


4 


7 


1,360 


1,238 


1 


5 


1,416 


1,245 


2 


8 


1,487 


1,256 


3 


12 


1,289 


1,345 


5 


3 


1,490 


1,238 


8 


7 


1,435 


1,273 


15 


15 


1,409 


1,237 


18 


18 


1,421 


1,325 


21 


21 


1,397 


1,234 


15 


14 


1,445 


1,228 


38 


29 


1.412 


1,320 


31 


26 


1,348 


1,283 


16 


22 


1,397 


1,278 


26 


30 


1,424 


1,249 


33 


25 


1,431 


1,224 


33 



* Warner's Study of Children, p. 33. 

f Donaldson's Growth of the Brain, p. 104. 



116 



AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 



A GENEEAL COURSE 

Subject to Individual 



Approximate 
ages. 


Stages of growth. 


Classification of 
school. 


Characteristic 
purpose. 


23, 24, 25 . . 


Specialization. 


University. 


Professional 
training. 


21, 22 


Transitional. 


The world. 


Choice of 
vocation. 


18, 19, 20 . . 


Early manhood 
and womanhood. 


College. 


General culture. 


15, 16, 17 . . 


Early adoles- 
cence. 


Gymnasium or 
high school. 


Exercise and 
application. 


14* 


Reconstruction. 




Accommodation. 


11, 12, 13 . . 


Full childhood. 


Intermediate or 
all-round school. 


General survey 
and skill. 


8, 9, 10 ... . 


Middle 
childhood. 


Elementary or 

alphabetic 

school. 


Acquisition of 
tools. 


5,6,7 


Rapid 
brain growth. 


Play school. 


Freedom. 



* A reading of the context is essential to an understanding 



THE COURSE OF STUDY. 



117 



OF STUDY. 

Variations. 



Sociologistic 
principle. 


Studies or media. 


Adaptation 

to distinctive 

mission. 


Life work. 


Finding 
mission. 


Business, society, travel, investigation. 


Altruism. 


Sciences, Mathematics, Gymnastics. 
Languages, Economics, Music, 
Humanities, Industries, Art. 
Belles-lettres, 


Convictions. 


Science, Design, 
Grammar, Creation, 
Latin, Greek, Gymnastics, 
French and German, Play, Z~ 
Literature, Music, 
History, Art. 
Algebra, Geometry, 




Relaxation in school. 




* Summer in country, in camp, or on seashore. 
Winter in semi-tropical regions. 


Helpfulness. 


Nature, History, Invention, 
Geography, Literature, Industries, 
Language, Arithmetic, Gymnastics, 
German and French, Geometry, Play, 
Drawing, Mechanics, Music. 


Self-control. 


Nature, Historical Narrative, 
Drawing, Literary Gems, 
Language, Form and Numbers. 
French, Construction, 
"Writing, Play, 
Reading, Music. 


Beauty of 
harmony. 


Nature, Drawing, Play, 
Mother Tongue, Myth, Song. 
Picture Reading, Construction. 



of the distinctive bearings of this variable course of study. 



118 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

A plan of school work should be determined largely 
by the characteristic phenomena of fundamental nas- 
cent periods of groups and of individuals; and to that 
extent it may contain a general time element; that is, 
it may base its proper work upon exercises appropriate 
to the various stages of growth; but no given portion 
of time should ever have assigned to it the accomplish- 
ment of a definite amount of work. School work should 
be full of opportunities for omissions, for short-cuts, 
and for changes in character of exercise. The best 
studies are not those which require identical proce- 
dure. 

Eecognising, therefore, the value of years as ap- 
proximately representative of certain stages of growth, 
Avith constant variation for adaptation to sex and indi- 
viduals, the classification of schools on pages 116 and 
117 is oflPered, with illustrations to follow in subsequent 
chapters, to take the place of the graded course of study 
as generally constituted. 

The Play School. 

The play school is for children of years approxi- 
mately five, six, and seven. The characteristics of this 
stage of growth are rapid development in the size of 
the brain, the need of proper nutrition, and, at more 
frequent intervals (possibly five meals per day), little 
exacting work, an abundance of free movement, plenty 
of play in sunshine and pure air, and twelve hours 
per day for sleep. It is also the time for observation, 
for imitation and for story-hearing. The child comes 
in contact with the beauty of the law as unconsciously 
presented to him in his relations to others. His act 



THE COURSE OP STUDY. 119 

may spoil the harmony of perfect concord, may be the 
one blot on the perfect picture, may bring unhappiness 
to others. The beauty of the perfect law, not its maj- 
esty, therefore, appeals to him ; and he gradually places 
his life in harmony with the welfare of others and thus 
finds himself an integral contributor toward good gov- 
ernment. 

The exercises of the play school are Nature study, 
bringing the child into contact with life and associat- 
ing him with its care and culture; story-hearing as he 
sits at the feet of the story-teller and drinks in the 
wealth of myth and representative story; mother 
tongue, through his own telling of stories heard, things 
observed and personal experiences, through contribu- 
tion to the children's group, and by imitation of the 
teacher story-teller; picture-reading, his only reading 
from the printed page; construction, embodying the 
survival of the fittest exercises of the kindergarten and 
reaching out after larger and higher forms ; games, full 
of life and romp and spontaneity; art or draiving, the 
child's own representation of stories heard, things seen 
or to be constructed; and song, not through character 
representation, but pure song itself. 

Would you have no reading or writing hefore the 
age of eight years? 

I would have neither of these exercises in the play 
school during this stage of rapid brain growth. Eead- 
ing, as has already been said, is an exercise of passive 
attention, full of abstraction and difficulty, which 
largely disappear when it is reserved for a time when 
strength and concept unite to make it easy, and its re- 
sults are very meagre. Besides, at this tender age, the 
10 



120 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

bending of the child over a book and the confinement of 
vision to the close-at-hand page before he is able to 
handle himself properly, are both to be avoided. There 
comes a time in the later development of the child when 
there seems to be a budding forth of literary ability 
which makes learning to read easy and quick of accom- 
plishment. Writing and other fine and exact work are 
also objectionable at this period, and should be deferred 
until the smaller areas of the brain begin to be devel- 
oped. The young child should deal more with wholes 
and larger movements. 

7s it ever advisable that a child of this age should 
begin piano practice? Is it not claimed that the skilled 
musician is the one who begins technical drill of the 
fingers in early childhood f 

Most emphatically there should be no piano practice 
at this age. The brain must reach, during this period, 
practically its full maturity in size, and, therefore, must 
have the whole strength of its energies expended in 
growth. Attention to exercises of the finer muscles 
leads to arrest of brain growth and to many nervous dis- 
eases which afflict the child for life. It is cruel to con- 
fine a child of this age to an exercise like piano drill, 
when all the activities of the body and mind call for 
freedom. 

How will you occupy the child's time? Admitting 
that reading and writing have been largely unprofitable 
studies for young children, what can be offered as their 
substitute in the school? 

The consideration of this question in the past has 
been one of great difficulty because of the point which 
has just been raised; but we are now coming to its solu- 



THE COURSE OF STUDY. 121 

tion. The scheme of Nature study which has been 
worked out so admirably by Dr. Hodge * at Clark Uni- 
versity, and in his writings, and which is now finding 
its way with such enriching results into the schools of 
Worcester, Mass., and elsewhere, opens up an unlimited 
field of opportunity. This question of Nature study will 
be treated more fully in our discussion of the methods 
of the school. Then there is the great and fruitful 
revelation of the story-teller, who is the person above 
all others to be prized in the education of the young — 
how enormously this field can be developed ! The kin- 
dergarten has never experienced difficulty in filling the 
day, and the development of its higher exercises and 
their application in construction will contribute a great 
factor. Then the play exercises which Superintendent 
Johnson has been working out so admirably in his 
school at Andover are full of suggestion for immediate 
utilization. There is an abundance of material with 
which to fill even the longest day. 

" Would not the child lose greatly/' says some am- 
hitious mother, " hy thus omitting all technical training 
until he is eight years old? " 

It is the gradation of the school and not the loss 
of time by the child which makes this matter serious. 
If the child is given opportunity, he will readily recover 
his place with children of his own age, and beyond that 
his interest is keener and his progress more substantial. 

Says Dr. G. W. Fitz: f 

" Experience has shown over and over again that the 



* Dr. C. F. Hodge. Nature Study and Life. 
f Popular Science Monthly, vol. Iv, p. 429. 



122 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

child who begins to read at eight or even ten years of 
age is in no wise handicapped in his later intellectual 
progress. He has the inestimable advantage of intense 
interest roused by his growing ability to unlock the se- 
crets of books and papers after the fashion of his elders. 
. . . Writing is taught before the child has acquired the 
art of fine co-ordination, and the effort demanded in 
the use of the pen ' leads to a degree of nervous ex- 
haustion unapproached by any other school work.' . . . 
Much of the aversion to arithmetical problems found 
later is undoubtedly due to this disheartening primary 
work. Here, again, the child who begins arithmetic at 
eight or ten years of age finds himself able to take it 
up quickly and has the liking for it that easy mastery 
always gives . . . Nature work, on the other hand, 
offers wonderfully interesting and valuable material 
for awakening the intellectual activities of childhood; 
and while its material for study and description is un- 
limited, its demand upon the child may be perfectly 
adapted to his power of observation. We must remem- 
ber that physical activity is the supreme factor in the 
development of a child." 

What should he the hours of this play school? 
Would you have single or double sessions? 

Under the form of organization recommended that 
is really a very immaterial consideration. By the pres- 
ent plan of schools, which confines the young child and 
expends his time in abstract, technical, and exacting 
exercise, the time should never be more than half a 
day. Indeed, two hours is all a child of this age should 
be confined for a day. But it must be remembered 
that our ideal school contemplates a school of great 



THE COURSE OP STUDY. 123 

freedom and naturalness. It has its gardens and park 
for summer and its flower corridors for winter; its 
ample play room for winter and extended playgrounds 
for summer. Much even of the constructive exercises 
can be out of doors, while within the child still lives 
in a room of perfect illumination. The story-telling 
of the teacher lends itself as well to the group under 
the trees as to that in the house. All the movements of 
the children take on all the naturalness of the home. 
Under such circumstances it matters not whether the 
school is one of single session or double session; but 
with our ideal park and gardens and attractive build- 
ings for the gathering of the children, it would natu- 
rally be a place where they would spend a good part of 
the day. It is not so much a question of the child as it 
is of the teacher ; but in our play school the work is not 
so exacting, and it is not so necessary that the same 
teacher should carry all the work of the school. 

Supposing that your ideal plant could not he ob- 
tained, what do you think should he the discipline of 
the primary school as at present organized? 

There is no reason why the discipline should be 
rigid even in that case. The child has a divine right 
to a life of activity. If he wants to stand up or to 
sit down, the privilege should be his. If he wishes to 
leave the room because of physical necessity, that is 
his business and not the teacher's. In his movements 
to and from the class he must be natural. I was very 
much interested in visiting a school in Denver, to 
hear the enterprising teacher say she had discov- 
ered the natural way for a young child to move was 
not to walk, but to scamper. Here was a school 



124 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

where, when the group around the desk was ready to 
return to their seats, the teacher gave a signal, and 
away they all scampered and another class came run- 
ning forward in the same way. The children had been 
accustomed to this exercise and not in the least did 
it seem to disturb the happy working discipline of the 
room. But even if it did, little would be lost by break- 
ing up the painful passivity and monotony of most 
primary schools. 

How many children to the teacher would he con- 
templated in this ideal school? 

Twenty-four. This is far too many in the present 
school where the teacher is to attempt the impossible 
task of bringing full activity to every child in the room 
in reading and kindred abstractions; but the teacher in 
our play school can handle that number very well, for 
she becomes their leader and director rather than the 
hearer of lessons. 

Did you ever see a school where Nature was thus 
made the basic study? 

Miss Dennis's walking school at Chautauqua, N. Y., 
conducted with great success during several sum- 
mers in the eighties, was a fine illustration of what 
could be done in this way. The Upsala School at 
Worcester, ]\Iass., and IVIadame Claverie's transitional 
school in her beautiful Casa de Eosas, at Los Angeles, 
are both notable examples full of suggestion. Refer- 
ence to this work will again be made, with fuller de- 
scription, in the discussion of studies. 

Would this plan do away with the kindergarten? 

By no means. The kindergarten has been the leaven 
that has been transforming all elementary education. 



THE COURSE OP STUDY. 125 

Froebel is the only man who ever made a complete plan 
of education out of whole cloth. The work which has 
been begun so well in the infant-room has been reach- 
ing its way upward and is enriching the entire educa- 
tional fabric. Our play school is the expanded kinder- 
garten; and as it deals with children of older age it 
must take on higher character. Exercises in colour and 
form, modelling, paper-folding and cutting, stick-lay- 
ing, visualizing, larger mat and basket weaving, repre- 
sentative games, etc., are all full of great possibilities. 
Certainly the kindergarten must abandon its finer work, 
and this it is now doing. For building purposes nothing 
is of higher value than several hundred building blocks 
the size of bricks, or, for exact building, 2 inches by 
4 inches by 8 inches. The larger portion should be 
of full size, a great many of half bricks, and some 
half bricks should be cut diagonally through the oblong 
sides, to make triangular forms for gabled roof§. With 
a quantity of blocks of these sizes in the school or the 
home there is no end to the magnificent structures and 
transformations which the children will make in ex- 
pression of their genius. Such an outfit, in a play room 
in the writer's own home, has been the gathering place 
and endless enjoyment of the children of a whole neigh- 
bourhood. Then there is the building of veritable 
houses under the teacher's direction, of mills on the 
water stream, and other creations of the opportunity- 
given child. It should not be forgotten, however, that 
the child at this age delights in cruder forms. To him 
a shaped board with a string is a boat; a very simple 
structure becomes a sled; and there is more pleasure in 
a rude pencil sketch than in the finished picture in the 



126 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

book. The complicated toy and the detailed representa- 
tion belong to a later age. 

Your play school provides for children of ages five, 
six, and seven, or approximately so. Would you have 
no schooling for children below the age of five? 

I look with great reluctance on any necessity which 
separates the mother and the child during the first 
four or five years of the child's life, and with still greater 
reluctance to any procedure which shuts the young 
child up in a house. If our homes were ideal, I would 
say the home garden, where the mother trains her child, 
is a sacred place not to be given up for anything the 
school can offer; but if the home conditions are not 
ideal, if the child is to be passed over to the attendant, 
or if he is to live in the atmosphere of the thousand 
vexations which some way characterize so much of 
every-day life, or if he is to be shut up in quarters 
where the conditions are less hygienic than the school, 
then I am sure the infant school is preferable. How- 
ever, the growing interest which mothers are taking in 
practical child-study, as evidenced in the formation of 
mothers' clubs, mothers' councils, etc., is prophetic of 
the day when the average mother will be better pre- 
pared for, and more delighted in, the culture of her 
own children. The mother owes that to her child which 
no teacher can ever offer. As Beecher has said, " Every 
mother is a priestess ordained of God." 

Mr. Taxpayer here interposes an objection: 

Your school seems to require that the number of 
pupils to the teacher should be reduced to twenty-four. 
Would not this cost a great deal of money? 

This reduction is made even now in our kindergar- 



THE COURSE OF STUDY. 127 

tens. It is also done in nearly all of our high schools 
and in many of our higher grammar grades. The num- 
ber of pupils to the class is very much less than that 
in certain branches. It is, therefore, only a question 
of justice to all, of carrying the same policy into other 
schools. Besides, it is not a question of how much 
does it cost, but of how much more can the child get 
out of the school. As I have said before, what are 
we living for, if not for our children? 

" You thinks then/' remarks some interested edu- 
cator, " that the plan of deferring a child's formal train- 
ing until he is approximately eight years of age is 
fully practicable, and that there will he sufficient subject- 
matter to occupy his time in the play school?" 

It is perfectly practicable. The time of a child 
always has been fully occupied by the school, and prob- 
ably always will be. It is absolutely essential that the 
child should have opportunity for free growth at this 
time. Says G. T. W. Patrick: * " The period between 
the ages of five and ten years is an important one in 
the child life. It is the time when the " let-alone " 
plan of education is of most value, for the reason that 
nearly all our educational devices beyond the kinder- 
garten are more or less attempts to make men and 
Avomen out of children. If the child at this age must 
be put into the harness of an educational system, his 
course of study will not be impoverished by the omis- 
sions of reading and writing. To teach him to speak 
and to listen, to observe and to remember, to know 
something of the world around him, and instinctively 

* Popular Science Monthly, vol. Iv, p. 392. 



128 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

to do the right thing, will furnish more than enough 
material for the most ambitious elementary curricu- 
lum." 

The Elementary or Alphabetic School. 

I am ready to admit there must come a time in 
the life of the child when he should become acquainted 
with the alphabets of learning, and acquire skill in the 
handling of certain tools on which his later advance- 
ment is more or less conditioned. The best time for 
this is during the ages eight, nine, and ten. The brain 
has now approximately completed its growth; the 
period is one of fairly constant increase in height and 
weight; the smaller brain areas are being developed; 
the body takes on a grace not possible before ; the mem- 
ory is not charged with the conflicting impressions of 
later years; language becomes easy; there is a grow- 
ing tendency toward details, analyses, and invention; 
a care for property rights and a regard for the happi- 
ness of others have been engendered; and the whole 
child is rapidly passing from the realm of pure per- 
cept to a growth where the concept is becoming more 
characteristic. It is a time when the child is rapidly 
adjusting himself to environment; and, therefore, it 
may be characterized as the period of nascent self- 
control. 

In this elementary or alphabetic school the child 
should still have Nature as the great basic study of 
the entire period. Drawing is still taught as a means 
of expression. His language, through imitation and 
from the more abounding concept, now seeks by its 
own nature a written representation. By recognition 



THE COURSE OF STUDY. 129 

of the form of words, taught on the crayon board and 
by selection from placard or crayon-board vocabularies 
which grow with the addition of new words, the child 
by imitation begins to be a writer of words. The writ- 
ing of language leads directly to its reading; and thus 
the child gets his knowledge of the alphabets of literary 
composition at a time needed by the processes of Na- 
ture. To him reading is now intelligible from the start ; 
and his stronger mind short-cuts the longer and mo- 
notonous processes which in the earlier years are 
attended with so much worthless consumption of time. 
The story-teller still has her place in the school; 
and historical narrative adds to myth its noble contri- 
bution from the past. During this time of receptive 
memory beautiful gems from literature are made the 
children's own. The period is also characterized as the 
one particularly favourable for pure language study; 
hence, a foreign tongue, preferably French, should be 
begun early in this period, but entirely by the mother- 
tongue method. From contact with Nature in the play 
school the child has already got his unconscious knowl- 
edge of numbers, and, in his own way, can make some 
surprising calculations. It is now well that he should 
be drilled in the fundamental processes and acquire, 
through use, a knowledge of the alphabets and basic 
relations of numbers. Construction takes on a higher 
form. The simpler representations will not now an- 
swer. The boy's boat must be the best boat; the girl's 
doll must be the best dressed. It is a time of the wind- 
mill, the water-wheel, the sail-boat, the kite, the top, 
the mechanical toy, the pattern-making, the well- 
plotted garden, the play-house, store vending, and juve- 



130 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

nile soldiers' drill. The child must have his tools and 
work room, and his pets to care for. He prizes drill 
in sloyd, sewing, and modelling; but all of his exercises 
must be for some practical purpose. It is a time also 
when the voice needs careful attention, that children 
may sing softly and in perfect tune. They should have 
opportunity to hear beautiful music, and, occasionally, 
the stirring brass band. If the future violinist or pian- 
ist is to arise to any great distinction, it must be by 
training of the finer muscles during this favourable 
period. But with all, the child must have abundant 
time and abundant opportunity for free play, and this 
free play should have fully half of his waking hours. 
He needs also eleven hours of sleep (best hours eight 
to six), and well-selected, nutritious food. 

Why is so much time demanded for play? Will 
this not interfere very materially with the serious work 
of the school in getting the child ready for the responsi- 
bilities of life? 

It must ever be remembered that play is the child's 
divine right. The man owes his comparatively greater 
longevity over the other animals to the fact that his 
period of childhood, of free play, is longer; and in 
proportion as we encroach on this fundamental neces- 
sity in healthy growth, we limit the tenure, the useful- 
ness, and the enjoyment of adult life. If we do not 
allow the child adequate time for play, there is no life 
worth the getting ready to live. 

What are the reasons for placing French in this 
elementary school? If it is based on the fact that this 
is the natural time for language, why not give the more 
attention to English? 



THE COURSE OP STUDY. 131 

I would not for a moment lessen the attention which 
should be given to pure English, except to say that 
the best English training a child at this age can get 
is by imitation from the exemplar teacher, the models 
in polite literature, and in the clear comprehension of 
things to say. But there is a limit to which English, 
unaided by other language, can rise. The study of a 
foreign tongue brings into play many nicer exercises 
in the interpretation of one tongue into terms of an- 
other, many discriminations in word forms, synony- 
mous meanings and particular choices, and also un- 
consciously much of grammatical A^alues not so easily 
recognisable in one's own familiar tongue. It is be- 
cause the processes of thought involved are so much 
richer that a foreign tongue at this age is particularly 
desirable as a help in English thinking. Besides, 
the period is the natural one for language study; 
and if one is ever to get a foreign language at all, he 
might as well get it while it is easy. " I doubt," 
said Dr. Edward Everett Hale,* " if I was twelve 
years old when my father gave me a scrap in French, 
from the Journal des Debats, about excavations 
in Assyria, and asked me to translate it for his news- 
paper." 

There is no particular objection to making German 
the introductory modern language, if local circum- 
stances render that language more advisable. A child 
should gain a speaking knowledge, by the mother- 
tongue method, of both French and German before he 
reaches the high school. It is perhaps best he should 

* Hale's How I was Educated. 



132 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

take up one first. French is much the easier in learn- 
ing, and therefore is placed first. 

Where shall we yet teacliers qualified for this in- 
struction in the lower school? Shall all our teacliers 
he required to he proficient in French and German? 

Not necessaril}^ so. French or German in schools 
below the high school should be taught entirely by the 
mother-tongue method, and this calls for teachers who 
are trained to the mother tongue. It is not necessary 
that such a teacher should be with the children except- 
ing at certain hours during the week. Then everything 
should take on the atmosphere of the French or Ger- 
man lands, be it in the school room or in the fields. 

Would you have no French or German in the play 
school? 

There is no objection to some simple exercises of 
this character in childish spirit, if the circumstances 
demand. Many kindergartners have introduced some- 
thing of the foreign tongues in connection with the 
children's lunch. In this way the children are taught 
quite effectively, and to their great delight, many 
phrases appropriate to their exercises. Wherever this 
can be done in connection with the play exercises it 
certainly has no objections and may present many de- 
cided gains. 

WoiLld there he 710 formal gyynnastics in this school? 

Not for children of ages eight, nine, and ten, ex- 
cepting in correction of physical malformations. The 
best physical training a child of this age can have 
is nutritious food, an abundance of free play, great 
freedom in the school room, and eleven hours of re- 
freshing sleep. If you can not have these essential 



THE COURSE OF STUDY. I33 

elements and conditions, tlien you must offer formal 
gymnastics. 

When would you teach the child his multiplication 
table f 

I do not know that I would teach it to him at 
all; I would probably let him learn it. And yet it is 
highly important the child should have careful drill 
in the alphabets of numbers during this period. In- 
stead of making him commit meaningless tables of 
numbers, I would place the common tables in large 
characters on great charts on the walls so that the 
child could get his table help at any time by an imme- 
diate glance at the table form. An abundance of cal- 
culations soon makes the child familiar with the funda- 
mental products ; and after a time he will himself short- 
cut the processes by mastering the missing links. Or 
then, when the table has become his tool, the teacher 
may make requirement if necessary. 

It is interesting to note that Samuel Pepys, the 
eminent English accountant, who was secretary of the 
navy under Charles II (all historians rely on his diary 
for data concerning the reign of this king), and 
was selected to make reply to the criticisms on the 
naval department — which was done with such accuracy 
of statement, mathematical detail, and effective results 
that he received the thanks of the king and the naval 
department — graduated from Cambridge in 1653, but 
did not learn the multiplication table until 1662.* 

Concerning covering the wall with placards and 
charts, bearing in large characters tables and other im- 

* See Samuel Pepys' Diary. 



134 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

portant data to be fixed on the memory, the schools 
have much to learn from the psychology of advertising 
as exemplified in street-car cards and on bulletin boards. 

The Intermediate School. 

The years eleven, twelve, and thirteen in boys, and 
eleven and twelve in girls, are marked by great accelera- 
tion of growth in height and weight. Full boyhood is 
reached ordinarily at the end of the thirteenth year, and 
full girlhood ordinarily at the end of the twelfth year. 
This is the pre-pubescent stage just before great or- 
ganic changes set in, and may be called the period of 
realized childhood. The child now begins some gen- 
eralization and is ready for a general survey of his 
environment and for exercises of further skill in his 
adjustment. The development of finer muscles has 
given him a quickness and grace of body not earlier 
possible ; and his mental co-ordinations are correspond- 
ingly rapid. It is a time of spontaneous politeness and 
general helpfulness. He does not care to play alone, 
but has a passion for flocking, for choosing sides, and 
for the gang. 

His overabounding nature may now make trouble 
unless properly directed; but, on the other hand, any 
utilization of his gang spirit leads easily to great help- 
fulness in self-government and to the recognition of 
community relations. It is an excellent time to abridge 
many of the usual processes of the school and to gain 
in a short time, under proper opportunity, a compre- 
hensive preparation for the work of the high school. 
The school may now take on a miniature representation 
of life and may anticipate to good advantage every 



THE COURSE OF STUDY. 135 

study that is to follow. Because of this, it may be 
called the School of General Survey and Universal Ad- 
justment. If there is any one person in the world 
who in a short time can quickly comprehend and also 
adjust himself to almost any emergency of universal 
environment, that person is the boy or girl of this age. 
This is the time for the climbing of trees, for learning 
to swim and to skate, for writing letters to the oppo- 
site sex, for baseball, for excursions, for running away 
from school, and for stealing watermelons — not to be 
bad, but just for the fun of the thing. The child now 
needs an abundance of food, freedom from pressure, 
plenty to do during school hours, attention to cleanli- 
ness, opportunity to help somebody else, but not under 
requirement, opportunity for social games and play, 
and ten hours of refreshing sleep. Up to the end of 
this period co-education has its self-evident advantages ; 
during the following four years it is a debatable 
question. 

Because of all this, the study of Nature in the 
census of birds, the traits and habits of fishes and 
mammals, the colonization of bees and ants, the culture 
of frogs and toads, the destruction of pestiferous in- 
sects, and the fostering of plant life for animal pur- 
poses, is an exceedingly interesting occupation at this 
period, so long as it involves something for the child 
to do in the domestication of animals and in the cul- 
ture of the higher types of plant life. Before this time, 
the child, from his general contact with the world and 
from the illustrated lecture, has got an elementary 
knowledge that the world is round and one of many 
worlds, and of the general size and location of the con- 
11 



136 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

tinents and oceans. He has also gained many useful 
ideas from his experience and observation in the school 
park, from attendance on illustrated lectures and else- 
where. He is now ready for a detailed study of 
the geography of the world; and for this the two or 
three years of this school are ample time. Language 
is still easily acquired. The forms of written com- 
munications used in letter-writing and business trans- 
actions should receive special attention; and abundant 
exercise will doubtless be given to record-keeping, to 
graphic descriptions and to story-telling. The mod- 
ern languages should be continued. If French has 
been studied in the preceding period, German may now 
be substituted, or, preferably, added; but in this the 
mother-tongue method should still be used, with read- 
ing and writing largely incidental. Drawing is con- 
tinued as a form of language expression, but begins to 
take on design for constructive purposes. 

The history of the United States and of England, 
and the leading current events and their related history 
of the world at large, now make fruitful reading and 
topics for discussion. Good books and selected master- 
pieces should direct and foster a worthy literary taste. 
Business arithmetic and practical geometry fit into 
their proper places. Mechanics, inventive exercises, and 
industrial training, in practical forms, are full of profit- 
able enjoyment. The child should now enter the gym- 
nasium for a half hour of regular daily drill, class 
and individual. The entire school should be organized 
for play, as at Andover; but nothing should be done to 
crowd out the free spontaneous play which, however, 
is the natural outgrowth of the Andover spirit. It is 



THE COURSE OF STUDY. 137 

at this period that the most beautiful music in all the 
world of song is possible, the voices of both boys and 
girls now reaching a purity and freshness that have 
no parallels in the realm of music. Because of the 
attendant beauty, grace, co-operative spirit, brightness 
and effective results, boys and girls at this period are 
most selected for exhibition purposes. Nothing that 
follows can compare with the pleasing life of this age. 
It is the glory of realized boyhood and girlhood in all 
their charm, vigour, and beauty. 

Would you have no advanced problems in arithmetic 
for disciplinary exercises? 

The fundamental processes in arithmetic and in 
actual business are really very few ; but they are capable 
of such an infinite application in problems such as one 
would meet in life, that they possess all the disciplinary 
possibilities that may be desired. Pupils, in rapid exer- 
cises from blackboard tables, may learn all the simpler 
square and cube combinations and their resolution into 
roots, so that the fundamental elements involved may 
thus be readily recognized; but square root and cube 
root and kindred difficulties should be left until the 
high-school period, when, in connection with algebra, 
geometry, and physics, they may be better presented. 
The course of arithmetic ])repared by Superintendent 
Button for his schools in Brookline is remarkable not 
only in what it gives, but in what it omits. What there 
is, should be done well. 

I see no penmanship assigned for this period. 
Where does penmanship come in? Should it he vertical 
or slant ivriting? 

There is little penmanship taught, but plenty of 



138 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

good writing required. In the elementary-school period, 
assigned for the acquisition of skill in the mastery of 
working tools, writing should be taught. The system 
is the vertical, with every letter formed in the simplest 
possible manner and as an approximation of print. The 
hand should be large and the lines heavy enough to 
be read without tiring the eye. All blackboard writing 
should be in a very large and heavy hand. In the pre- 
ceding three years — of ages eight, nine, and ten — pupils 
will acquire great legibility and fair rapidity in script 
writing; and with the end of that period all regular spe- 
cial instruction in writing may be discontinued. The 
intermediate-school period in its various exercises calls 
for a great deal of expression in writing. Good pen- 
manship should always be required; but it need not be 
taught excepting as an occasional exercise. Vertical 
writing, once acquired, will perpetuate its own legibility. 

" 1 now understand," says some one, " that you 
would condense the technical work, which in most 
schools requires eight years, and in Massachusetts nine 
years, into these two periods of only six years, and in 
case of the girls possibly five years. Do you think this 
can he done; and, if so, how? " 

I am sure it can be done. In the first place, I am 
relying on better health to accomplish in a short time 
what ordinary meagre health accomplishes with diffi- 
culty in a long time. Then, again, all the work of the 
play school abounds in self-suggested anticipations of 
later work, and leads to the concepts which make all 
work easy when presented at the proper time. There 
is nothing whatever gained by the attempt to force 
a nascent period. At the proper time the child will 



THE COURSE OF STUDY. 139 

come to his budding strength for the accomplishment 
of a given kind of elementary work; and then is the 
time to accomplish much in little. The attempt to 
anticipate, by substituting monotonous, unproductive 
drudgery, is apt to inoculate the child against all healthy 
interest when he is naturally qualified. It is never 
quantity which educates, but good healthy normal exer- 
cise at proper tension. Then, there is much in the ordi- 
nary course of study which can be eliminated, as has 
been suggested. 

Yes, I am quite sure that with an entire reconstruc- 
tion of our correlations and methods of work, all the 
technical work which should be done below the high 
school can be done in these five or six years, and even 
then allow for a good deal of absence demanded by gen- 
eral circumstances. The fact is, there is more educa- 
tion outside of the school than the average schoolman 
is ready to admit. There are educational factors which 
the school has never yet paralleled, but which contrib- 
ute very much to the total sum of a child's education. 

But Jioiv will you ever get these pupils together 
again if some of the girls omit a year here and other 
pupils a number of months there? 

I do not say that I would have all girls omit a 
year at the end of this period; but I would make it 
possible for some of them to do so, at least much of 
the work. As far as the diflfieulty of getting the pupils 
together is concerned, I am not disturbed about that. 
I am only too glad to see the early coming of the time 
when pupils are not " together " in their work. I am 
willing to short-circuit the curriculum for a great many 
pupils in the school. 



140 AN IDEAL SCHOOL, 

Might not some work in Latin be begun very profit- 
ably in this school? 

Most certainly, if it is desired. It is purely a ques- 
tion of the proper amount of language study at this 
time; and that is largely an individual matter. As far 
as age is concerned, it is a favourable time for begin- 
ning Latin. Says Dr. Edward Everett Hale : * " I was 
put on my Latin paradigms when I was six years old 
and learned them remarkably well. We limped through 
a Latin version of Eobinson Crusoe when I was eight 
years old." Margaret Fuller is also said to have com- 
menced her Latin at six years of age.f 

Are there not a good many subjects in this proposed 
course of study — quite as many, indeed, as required in 
the ordinary graded school? 

It may appear so, because all the elements which the 
child touches are here mentioned so that the compre- 
hensive scope of the plan may be seen. It should be 
noted, however, that these subjects are capable of a 
great deal of correlation. For instance, mechanics, in- 
vention, industries, and much of drawing and geometry 
really constitute one general svibject. But beyond that, 
this school, as will be indicated later, works on a flexi- 
ble programme of longer periods and recognises that 
the child will probably live to do to-morrow what he 
can not accomplish to-day. This, however, will be dis- 
cussed later under the subject of illustrative methods. 

7s it to be understood that you would have children 
work by longer periods than is usually the case? Are 

* Hale's How I was Educated. 

f Julia Ward Howe's Life of ^farffaret Puller. 



THE COUESE OF STUDY. 141 

not all the recent studies in fatigue overwhelming in 
their argument for still shorter periods of work and 
for frequent changes of exercises'? 

The school here presented is a very different affair. 
I have long been convinced that the breaking up of 
the child's time into so many fragments, with such 
kaleidoscopic changes, tends only to dissipation of en- 
ergy and defective mental image. It is always better 
for a teacher to continue until she has got something, 
always observing the rule, never to pass the point of 
good, healthy, vigorous, and interested attention. Be- 
sides, the test, in a school built along the lines sug- 
gested by play instincts, is, how does a child play? A 
child never plays with fragmentary division of time. 
His is always the longer period. The moment he is 
pressed for frequent change he begins to tire of his 
sport. It is only when the child is taken to the school, 
the world's fair, or the circus, that he comes home tired. 
The fact is, there is a great difference between a school 
of dead and passive exercises and one built funda- 
mentally on the doctrine of interest. 

There probably never has been a study of fatigue 
where the elements of interest and spontaneity entered 
into consideration. Every attempt to measure fatigue, 
so far as I know, has been entirely through the media 
of comparatively dead and passive exercises. 

In advancing an argument for longer periods of 
work I wish to be understood. I do not fail to rec- 
ognise fatigue in our reconstruction of the school ; but 
all fatigue is not bad. "We need normal fatigue to com- 
plete the cycle which leads to the recuperation of en- 
ergy, the reconstruction of exhausted brain cells; and 



142 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

certainly there is advantage in proper change of exercise. 
Wliat I am contending against is the fragmentary divi- 
sion of time and the dissipation of a child's energy. 
The flexible programme, doing to-day what can be done 
well, and the longer period of work, wherein interest 
is the controlling spirit in the doing of work, are things 
greatly to be desired in our elementary education. As 
a child plays, so may we safely plan his normal work. 
This will all be involved in the discussion of methods. 

The Second Birth. 

We now come to the most serious problem in all 
the realm of pedagogy. Thus far we have been dealing 
with the child and have attempted to trace his gradual 
development from infancy up to the period of full boy- 
hood and full girlhood. Now comes a reorganization of 
the child's entire being, a reorganization based in the 
physical, but extending upward through the intel- 
lectual, and affecting largely the moral. A little later 
on, the child has reached early manhood or early 
womanhood; but just now he is neither child nor adult. 
The entire being is passing through an organic recon- 
struction which demands the most careful consideration. 
" The reproductive organs increase in size, the larynx 
enlarges, the vocal cords become elongated, the volume 
of the heart is increased. In the male the shoulders 
broaden, the muscles harden, and the beard begins to 
grow; in the female the pelvis increases in size, the 
bust develops, menstruation begins, and so on. Prob- 
ably equally important changes occur in the brain; for 
the shape of the head changes and the new intellectual 
and emotional activities of this period must be accom- 



THE COURSE OP STUDY. I43 

panied by the functioning of cerebral centres that have 
lain dormant before. This is, moreover, a period of 
specially rapid growth in both sexes. Key, who reports 
observations made upon 15,000 boys and 3,000 girls in 
Swedish schools, found that the boys showed a rapid 
increase in height and weight from the fourteenth to 
the sixteenth years. A similar period of rapid growth 
appeared in the girls at a somewhat earlier age." * 

Dr. Burnliam, from whom the above quotation is 
made and whose studies have given an immense impetus 
to a better knowledge of ^ the characteristics of ado- 
lescence, further says : 

" The psychological changes at puberty are no less 
remarkable. There is a great influx of new sensations. 
The brain, aroused by these new stimuli, increases its 
activity. The psychic concomitant of this increased 
cerebral activity is manifested in a variety of ways. 
The adolescent mind is filled with hopes, dreams, tem- 
pestuous passions, and new ideas. Social and ethical 
impulses become dominant ; egotism often gives place to 
altruism. Political or religious zeal sometimes becomes 
the mainspring of action. The reasoning powers come 
into use. At a somewhat later period philosophic specu- 
lation frequently becomes almost a passion; and philo- 
sophic and religious doubts are often common. The 
whole period of adolescence is often one of mental 
storm and stress; and not infrequently the cerebral 
overstrain results in insanity." 

It is in failure to consider these great fundamental 



* W. H. Burnhara's The Study of Adolescence. Pedagogical 

Seminary, vol. i, pp. 174-195. 



144 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

reconstructions of organism, which call for the concen- 
trated energies of the entire being, that educational 
methods have been most devoid of conscience. At the 
very time when there has been the most need for con- 
servation, the school system too often presses the child 
unmercifully. The changes attending this physical 
growth and reconstruction may be more manifest in 
girls, but they are just as energy-consuming in boys. 
At this time there must be relaxation, change in direc- 
tion, freedom from pressure, and opportunity. 

" Every modification of the sexual organs and every 
excitement will have its effect on the nervous system, 
and through it on the whole organism. Nervous cen- 
tres, voluntary muscles, involuntary muscles, heart and 
blood-vessels, glands — everything is affected." (Dr. 
Colin A. Scott.) 

Dr. Christopher * has said that if a child were grow- 
ing fast and studying hard while at the same time it 
should be developing the reproductive organs, it would 
be almost impossible to furnish sufficient food to carry 
on all these processes, and something would be sure to 
suffer. 

Dr. Clouston also very pointedly remarks : "Ameri- 
can physicians tell us that there are some schools in 
Boston that turn out young ladies so highly educated 
that every particle of spare fat is consumed by the 
l)rain cells that subserve the functions of cognition and 
memory." 

" Puberty," as one writer has said, " is the grand 
court of appeal by which weak children are weeded out 

* Child Study Monthly, vol. iv, p. 74. 



THE COURSE OF STUDY. 145 

and only those who have sufficient vitality for life's 
battle renew their strength and continue their de- 
velopment. . . . Foster's Medical Dictionary puts the 
average period of adolescence at between the ages of 
fourteen and twenty-five for boys and twelve and twen- 
ty-one for girls. . . . Clouston makes puberty the initial 
period in the development of the function of reproduc- 
tion, and adolescence the whole period of twelve years 
from first evolution up to the full perfection of repro- 
ductive energy." (Burnham.)* 

Any teacher, whose vision is not clouded by course 
of study requirement and the demand for a mechanical 
gradation, in contact with girls approximately at the 
age of thirteen and boys at fourteen, can not but have 
observed the difficulty with which children at this age 
usually perform school work. The girl's manifest weak- 
ness in climbing stairs and the boy's clumsiness in walk- 
ing across the floor are both indicative of inability to 
co-ordinate, because life energies are centred largely in 
growth. This year of greatest stress, wherever it hap- 
pens to come — and it varies with the differentiation in 
children — must be attended with a modification of school 
plans that will make conservation of these fundamental 
demands of growth a matter of prime importance. I 
do not say that such a child should have no schooling; 
but I do insist that many children ruin all their chances 
for future health by close application to school work 
during this critical time. Because of this, not to make 
such a plan uniform for all children, but to present 
opportunity for frequent need and to emphasize the 

* Pedagogical Seminary, vol. i, p. 174. 



146 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

importance of some provision, I have placed in our gen- 
eral course of study a year of relaxed school life, to be 
spent, if possible, amid circumstances of proper men- 
tal activity, but of radical removal from school tension 
and rivalry. This year on our chart has been placed 
approximately at fourteen; but it should come early 
or late whenever the condition of the child's health 
demands. It is a good thing for the schoolman to 
realize that there is much education for a child outside 
of the school; and the school plans should be so built 
as to permit a child's absence at any time, without loss 
above compensation. The school which has difficulty 
in placing children received from other schools, or who 
have been out of school for a time, is not simply out 
of joint with other schools, but is itself out of joint 
with Nature. 

The Gymnasium or High School. 

The pupil is now still in the early stages of adoles- 
cence; but, it is to be hoped, the year of greatest stress 
has passed. If not, it should have consideration at any 
time it appears. The period characteristic of the ages 
fifteen, sixteen, and seventeen is, as a rule, one of re- 
markable tendency. As the outgrowth of physiological 
and psychological changes the youth's entire attitude 
toward life has been changed. There has been a break- 
ing up of old anchorages, a reticence toward parents, 
and frequently a desire to get away from home. An 
unsettled condition of mind is also attended by grow- 
ing convictions, which seek expression sometimes in 
harsh and very inconsistent ways. The mind is filled 
with ambitious dreaming, and strenuous desire to do 



THE COURSE OP STUDY. 147 

something right off. The safety of the youth demands 
that there must be opportunity for this pent-up, over- 
flowing, and red-hot energy to express itself. If there 
is not such opportunity it may vent itself in immoral 
and lascivious dreaming. If it is true, as our most 
eminent physiologist asserts,* that many boys spend 
nine tenths of their time in thinking about matters 
pertaining to sex, it is highly important that the time 
of such pupils should be filled with inhibitive exercises 
that will prevent this over-consumption of time by sex- 
consciousness. As President Hall has so well said : 
" Quite apart, therefore, from its intrinsic value, educa- 
tion should serve the purpose of preoccupation, and 
should divert attention from an element of our nature, 
the premature or excessive development of which dwarfs 
every part of soul and body." The youth must have 
opportunity to express his overflow energy in physical 
exercises not altogether work, to do something. He 
should not be given chance to spend his time in indo- 
lence, in secluded sentimental reading, and in riotous 
imagination. His need is for action. 

The question whether the sexes should be coedu- 
cated during this period of maximum sex-consciousness 
is one much discussed. If the major thoughts of many 
boys dwell insistently on sex functions, as asserted in 
the authority given, and a similar consciousness, even 
in degree, exists with girls, are there losses or gains 
in coeducation ? Notwithstanding the judgment formed 
by most persons on the mere statement of the question 
in this light, I am inclined to think there are gains. 

* Pedagogical Seminary, vol. i, p. 207. 



148 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

After a long, active experience which has placed me 
in charge of one hundred thousand boys and girls of 
all ages, with some inclination to study individual char- 
acteristics, I am led to the opinion, particularly as far 
as boys are concerned, that the separated child is the 
unfortunate one, that his lascivious imagination arises 
from being alone, and that there is purifying corrective 
in the presence of the opposite sex. It is far better to 
have a boy's conceptions of girlhood coloured by con- 
tact with the nobler average girl of the school than by 
his riotous imagination or some exceptional suggestion. 
If judged from this point of view, coeducation has its 
tower of great strength. 

However, the question is a broader one than this. 
Are the functions of the education of the two sexes 
the same ? There are physiological reasons why the girl 
surpasses the boy in school ability at the beginning of 
this period, because her development is earlier. Dr. 
W. 0. Krolm * has attempted to show, basing his infer- 
ences on the tables of Vierordt,f that the brain of the 
girl at twelve or thirteen, and of the boy at fourteen, 
diminishes in weight because the blood and vital ener- 
gies at this period of stress are largely diverted to the 
development of other parts of the body, and that the 
girl's recovery one or two years earlier is the reason 
she is able to surpass the less-favoured boy at this time. 
This, however, is purely speculative, for the number of 
cases (Vierordt's table) at these particular ages is too 
limited for the basing of a scientific conclusion. It is 
very possible that a boy at this critical age can not 



* Child Study Monthly, vol. i. p. 36. t Chapter VI, p. 115. 



THE COURSE OF STUDY. 149 

divert energy from bodily growtli to mental operations, 
while the girl having passed it earlier to a greater ex- 
tent can, and therein lies her perhaps greater danger 
from working under requirements of work uniform also 
for boys. Dr. Edward H. Clarke remarks: " It was not 
Latin, French, German, mathematics, or philosophy 
that undermined her nerves. She lost her health simply 
because she undertook to do her work in a boy's way 
and not in a girl's way." Clouston also very pointedly 
adds : " Why should we spoil a good mother by making 
an ordinary grammarian ? " 

If this phase of the problem has no other solution 
than that presented in the practices of the school of 
uniformit}^, then we must render verdict that coeduca- 
tion of the sexes in the high-school period is a failure. 
But the plans and methods of work, the discussion of 
which we are now entering, are built fundamentally on 
the recognition of existing individual differences and 
needs, and, therefore, provide a place where neither the 
girl nor boy will suffer in a scheme of coeducation as 
applied to exercises, mental and moral. 

If, however, a school is so happy as to be able to de- 
part from the ordinary conventional form, as in the case 
of Captain Wilson's school on Lake Pasquaney, where 
sixty or more boys are turned loose during the summer 
months to live, with little clothing and much exposure 
to sun and storm, and with principal exercises in mili- 
tary drill, gymnastics, swimming, boating, mountain 
climbing, and farming, then certainly the school must be 
for one sex. But desirable as a summer school of this 
kind would be for each of the sexes, it does not enter 
largely into our problem, excepting to say there are 



150 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

certain parallel exercises in the general school which, 
in the very nature of the case, should be separate — 
namely, gymnastics, bathing, swimming, and heavier 
constructive and farming exercises, which should have 
a place in a scheme of education planned to conserve 
Nature. The argument for the school of coeducation, 
excepting for degenerates, still stands. 

The period of early adolescence, then, is a period 
when the old foundations of the youth become unset- 
tled. He must have opportunity for original inquiry 
and investigation in order to reach convictions. The 
doubt which psychologists say arises at this time is 
fundainentally necessary to make him an original 
thinker. He must have opportunity to depart from 
uniformity and to find out something for himself. The 
teacher can only give him association and perspective. 
It is a period calling, as a safeguard, for active outlet 
for overflowing energy. He must have laboratory work, 
industrial training, and physical exercise. The study 
or the plan of work which calls for long-continued 
sitting or passive exercise is not best for his interests 
as an adolescent. 

Says Dr. Burnham : " Activity is imperatively ne- 
cessary. Education for adolescence must no longer be 
mere acquisition; it must give outlet for action. For 
many this is necessary for mental balance; for all it 
is a means of saving waste energy." 

All the studies of the school must take on labora- 
tory character. There must be little opportunity for 
idle dreaming, for sentimental twaddle, and for riotous 
imagination. There must be inhibition by interested 
exercise, the drawing off of superfluous energy by ex- 



THE COURSE OF STUDY. 151 

penditure in coiiinuinding activity, the storage of the 
mind witli noble enterprise, and salvation by contact 
with healthy, uplifting personality. While this is a 
time demanding individual initiative and prosecution, 
it is also a period which must have debate, in which, 
however, none are so well qualified to speak intelli- 
gently or to be heard so appreciatively as those who 
come to their convictions through individual oppor- 
tunity. 

Because the early adolescent age calls so much for 
the expenditure of superabundant energy in active ex- 
ercise it is here called the period of the Gymnasium, 
which, under the nature involved, is a better name than 
the High School. It is not a period for platitudes and 
monotonous procedure, but for the expenditure of po- 
tential energy in kinetic exercises. 

The studies and media of the gymnasium or high 
school are choices in the sciences, grammar, Latin (and 
possibly Greek), French, German, literature, history, 
algebra and geometry, design, creation, play, gym- 
nastics, music, and art. The manner of dealing with 
these will be presented in our discussions on methods, 
the child, and the teacher. 

Owing to the excessive growth during this period, 
the adolescent needs an abundance of wholesome food, 
omitting confections and pastries, nine hours of sleep 
with no overindulgence, well-directed occupation, the 
storage of the mind with good things, plenty of fresh 
air and exercise, and almost constant companionship. 

Recognising the lofty function of reproduction, and 
that the child passing through this tremendous organic 
change is flooded with a growing sex-consciousness and 
12 



152 -^N IDEAL SCHOOL. 

an overflowing of energy, which are to him sources of great 
danger, ivhat are the duties of the parent and the 
teacher in helping him in this period of such portentous 
consequences'? 

The duty of the teacher has been largely outlined 
in the suggested adaptation of work. To the enlight- 
ened parent the child has a right to look for protec- 
tion; but there comes a time when such questions as 
these can not easily be discussed by the parent with 
the child. The introduction of the work must be done 
at the initial period. If there is ever a time when the 
parent's duty is manifest, it is at this time when the 
child knows not himself but must come to his knowl- 
edge of great vital questions through sources, good or 
evil, pure or debasing. As Earl Barnes has so well said : 
" There are two sources from which this knowledge may 
be obtained — one true and pure, the other false and 
dirty. Nineteen twentieths of children draw their 
information from those . . . who possess the mor- 
bid, false, and dirty view. They master a vocabulary 
which dates back philologically to our Aryan begin- 
ning, but to print which is a crime. The view which 
these children obtain is an abnormal one, and 
when they develop they use their sex powers abnor- 
mally." 

Dr. Helen P. Kennedy * says that " of 125 girls 
from whom she obtained written statements on this sub- 
ject, 36 passed into womanhood with no knowledge 
whatever, from a proper source, of all that makes them 
women; 39 had received a very meagre amount of in- 

* Child Study Monthly, vol. iv, p. 81. 



THE COURSE OF STUDY. 153 

struction, while less than half of the whole number felt 
free to talk to their own mothers on this important 
subject." 

Says Dr. Jeanette W. Hall : " Are we going to allow 
our boys and girls to come to this critical period in 
their lives unprepared to meet and cope with its dan- 
gers ? Shall we sit quietly down with the means in our 
possession to present this subject in its pure and noble 
aspect and allow some one else to poison the minds of 
our children and inflict upon them a view of sex and 
reproduction from which they can never- free them- 
selves ? Shall our girls become invalids through igno- 
rance and our boys be robbed of half their manhood 
because of our superrefined delicacy? . . . Let us 
rather attain to that height from which we ourselves 
can look out upon this subject freed from all impurity 
and see in reproduction the crowning feature of God's 
great plan of life. Then, with a scientific knowledge of 
the subject, let us present it to our children that they 
may look upon puberty as a phase of life as sacred as 
birth or death and as pure as infancy or maturity, and 
upon reproduction as a sacred power." 

The function of the teacher, in loco parentis — man 
teacher for the boys and woman teacher for the girls — 
in bringing to the adolescent this nobler conception of 
being and life, is the most difficult and yet the highest 
one in all pedagogy. At this time of stress and storm, 
of budding strength and conscious weakness, of doubt 
and yet need of light, the child seeks his confidants. 
If there is ever a time when " the confessional is the 
soul's clearing-house " (Hall), that time is now. The 
intelligent teacher may have a duty here, hard to read 



154 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

and difficult of accomplishment; but it is frequently 
a field where " fools rush in where angels fear to tread." 
This is, however, a matter primarily for the father and 
the mother. 

But we must pass in our discussion to other phases 
of our ideal school. The college and the university, 
following the gymnasium or high school, do not come 
within the province of our problem. They are given 
their places in our general course of study simply to 
show function and relation. We need not stop to dis- 
cuss these phases of higher education. Their provinces 
■ and suggested characteristics are indicated on the 
diagram. 

Should not the college he discussed here to show 
what higher education has a right to expect from the 
high school f Is not your high school to be a prepara- 
tory school for the college? 

No, not to any considerable extent. The college 
must be the successor of the high school. It must take 
up the work of the capable student wherever he may 
happen to be. 

"But," exclaims some high-school principal, "the 
colleges make their demands and state their require- 
ments in terms of uniformity. How shall we escape 
this domination which destroys our opportunity for in- 
dividual conservation ? " 

I will tell you how it can be done. It must be by 
the better high schools declaring their independence. 
The time is rapidly passing when the colleges can dic- 
tate what shall be the education in the secondary 
schools. The colleges are in the business for students. 
Just as soon as they find that tliey can not get stu- 



THE COURSE OF STUDY. 155 

dents on their own terms they will take them on the 
terms whereby they can get them. 

I do not doubt that many strong, capable people, 
who come to opportunity for liberal culture unexpect- 
edly late in life, are denied their just rights by the 
present attitude of the colleges. The magnificent 
school founded by Mr. Moody for this class of men and 
women is an exception which must determine the rule 
in colleges all over the land. I once knew a bright 
literary woman who, in the midst of a life devoted to 
culture as a student, poet, economist, and lecturer, sud- 
denly came to the desire to gain from the methods of 
the college. But this brilliant literary woman had 
never been in what the world calls the school more 
than a few months in all her life. Her whole career 
had been spent amid the culture of literary surround- 
ings, in the presence of books and scholarly people, 
and in literary creation ; but she had not the technique 
of the school. "■ Why," said the college executive to 
whom she applied for admission, " we all respect your 
literary ability; but under the requirements of our in- 
stitution I do not see that you present anything on 
which our precedents would allow us to grant you an 
admission." 

When will our colleges learn that they must find 
something else besides text and graveyard epitaphs as 
the basis for the measurement of creative mind? And 
when will they realize that they must take the capable 
student just where they find him in his desire for higher 
education? As President Jordan has so well said: * 

* Jordan's Care and Culture of Men. 



156 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

" The rewards of investigation, tlie pleasures of high 
thinking, the charms of harmony, have never been for 
the multitude. To the multitude they must be accessi- 
ble in the future. Xot as a gift, for nothing worth 
having was ever a gift, rather as divine right to be taken 
by those who can." 

There is another reason why the college has been 
placed on this chart in connection with the plan pre- 
sented for secondary education, as will be apparent by 
reading between the lines. We are in an era of tre- 
mendous high-school advancement, particularly in our. 
cities. The attendance is now so large in our high 
schools that the change in conditions from this element 
of numbers will soon render it expedient for the state 
to furnish these young people their college education at 
their own homes, rather than send them away where 
expenses are so much heavier. The equipments of some 
of our newer high schools, like those in Springfield, 
Mass., Holyoke, Mass., Oakland, Cal., and other cities, 
dwarf many of our colleges. The high schools all over 
the country are now doing practically what the colleges 
did fifty years ago ; and the city high schools, of recon- 
structed type, purely for economy's sake will soon be 
called upon to assume the lower work of the present 
college. 

Something of this kind is to be attempted in the 
new Jacob Tome Institute, at Port Deposit, Md., which 
proposes to establish a now degree of associate for those 
who there complete the first two years of the college. 
The University of Chicago, it is said, is to give this same 
degree at the end of the two years' course, hoping 
eventually to drop all work below this point of recogni- 



THE COURSE OP STUDY. 157 

tion and to assume its position as a true university. 
President Eliot's work has long been pointing to the 
same general issue. This, then, will create for the 
larger high school a new field, which economically it is 
well prepared to occupy. Indeed, a few high schools 
are even now offering opportunity for post-graduate 
high-school work. 



CHAPTEE VIII. 

INDIVIDUAL VAEIATIONS. 

"If symmetry is to be obtained by cutting down the most 
vigorous growth, it would be better to have a little irregularity 
here and there." (Agassiz.) 

The course of study outlined in the last chapter 
has been presented because there must be some back- 
bone to a school phm; but in the proper training of 
individuals it can serve only a general purpose. For 
convenience in comparison the usual factor of years 
is approximately indicated; but in our scheme for sci- 
entific education we must now drop the time element 
which has so long dominated both colleges and schools. 
The diversities in the human animal are the most un- 
limited and complex of all life. The variations in 
height, weight, proportion, temperament, food habits, 
interests, activities, endurance, and opportunities are 
so wide in their range and so complex in combinations 
that no one course of study can possibly meet the just 
needs of the many individuals whose interests are to be 
conserved. Every individual reaches his supreme possi- 
bilities in the fact that he is an individual and that his 
\ characteristics are peculiar to himself. 

Heredity. — It is true that all children are descended 
from Adam, but the lines of descent are very different. 
Under the conventionality of modern artificial life dif- 
158 



INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS. 159 

ferent individuals may take on many common traits 
and imitated characteristics; but still both immediate 
and remote ancestries are very diversified, and the child 
comes to the present a personal ego plus the enormously 
diversified heritages of the past. As Spencer has said, 
" To educate a child you must begin back with his 
grandfather." The Pentateuch (Ex. xx, 5; xxxiv, 7; 
Num. xiv, 18) explicitly declares that the iniquity of 
the fathers is visited " upon the children, and upon the 
children's children, unto the third and to the fourth 
generations." Bradford states: " All schemes of culture 
should begin with the recognition that each child is dif- 
ferent from any other, that the lines of difference run 
far back, and therefore are not superficial; and that, in 
order to secure the highest efficiency, systems of educa- 
tion should be adapted to the individuals to be reached." 
Heredity, then, is a fundamental factor in variation and 
must be considered in education. The ego, the divine 
spark, plus ancestral inheritance, can not be ignored. 
Even the children of the same parents come into 
the world diversified greatly by prenatal conditions; 
so much so that the several children of a given family, 
while bearing marked resemblance to parents in com- 
mon traits, are types peculiar to themselves. One child 
is tempest and another is sunshine; one is phlegmatic 
and the other nervous in temperament; that which 
/will do well for one child will not do at all for the 
Vothers ; and so each family has a little world of variety 
in itself. If there is so great difference in the children 
of the same family, where, because of common parent- 
age, association, shelter, food, clothing, and general 
home culture, one might expect some degree of similar- 



160 AN IDEAL SCHOOL, 

ity, how much more should we expect variations in the 
fifty children of a school, where certainly parentages 
and nationalities are far from uniform ! 

Environment. — So the child comes into the world 
a personal unit plus heredity. But how different the 
environments! The variations of home conditions from 
the rural to the urban, the differences in attendance, 
food, shelter, clothing, responsibilities, companionship, 
past instruction, sicknesses, injuries, opportunities, and 
all the thousands of circumstances, conditions, and 
incidents which go to make a person the " product of 
all he has ever met " and been — how endlessly varied 
the process, how diversified the product ! It is this 
product which comes to the school room, to have worked 
into the soul all the varying receptivities and reactions 
of the strengths and weaknesses of each succeeding step 
of instruction. The Child of a King, plus heredity, 
plus environment, stands at the door of the school and 
knocks, asking for that which uniformity can never give. 

Before the teacher, frequently of limited horizon 
and questionable motive, there gather in the school fifty 
children. Whence came they? They are the children 
of God, born of modifying parentages and conditioned 
by an evolution which Icnows no uniformity. In sizes, 
weights, temperaments, physical health, responsibili- 
ties, capabilities, and opportunities, what a heterogene- 
ous assemblage ! Side by side, in the same school, sit 
the children of wealth and of poverty, of native and of 
foreign descent, the well-fed and the meagrely nour- 
ished, the warmly clad and the scantily protected from 
the storm, the refreshed by adequate sleep in rooms of 
pure air and those worn from meagre hours of rest in a 



INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS. 161 

crowded, imventilated room, the child of hixury and the 
one of heavy responsibilities, the spoiled by indulgent 
parents and the independent through forced self-reli- 
ance, the robust in physical health and the incapacitated 
by past sicknesses and injuries, the well-taught and the 
ill-taught, the child of virtue and the one whose whole 
life is a moral struggle, i^ie child of encouragement^ 
and ambition and the one heart-sick and of little ex- 
pectancy. Is this an exceptional school? If not, what 
are the individual rights of these children? How can 
any system of uniformity answer the responsibility 
which it assumes? 

The Groivth of Children. — Not for purposes of defi- 
nition, but for general illustration, it may be well to 
follow this necessarily brief reference to heredity and 
environment by a presentation of some of the variations 
in physical characteristics, as typed, perhaps least of 
all, in heights and weights. 

Burk's study of the growth of children * deduces 
some very important facts to be conserved in a general 
scheme of education ; but the complexity of the problem 
is enormously increased by the tremendous range in the 
heights, in terms of inches and years, given in his 
adapted tables showing the results of the measurements 
of 45,151 boys and 43,298 girls made in the cities of 
Boston, St. Louis, Milwaukee, Worcester, Toronto, and 
Oakland. 

The following section (8-15 years) from Dr. Bow- 
ditch's table, giving the measurement of Boston school 
children, shows approximately the same range of varia- 
tions: 

* American Journal of Psychology, vol. ix, p. 267. 



162 



AN IDEAL SCHOOL, 



Variations 


in Heights oj 


' Boston School 


Boys. 




Inches. 8 ^ 


rrs. 9 ; 


irrs. 10 


yrs. 11 yrs. 


12 


yrs. 13 yrs. 


14 yrs. 


15 yrs. 


74 












1 


73 
















72 


















71 
















i 


70 
















3 


69 














6 


4 


68 














5 


14 


67 












3 


12 


19 


66 














8 


25 


65 












6 


20 


37 


64 












1 4 


32 


38 


63 






1 




3 13 


33 


35 


62 










6 18 


35 


43 


61 






1 




4 30 


34 


36 


60 






2 




16 32 


39 


31 


59...... 






5 




23 46 


43 


29 


58 






3 12 




38 48 


49 


14 


57 




1 


5 19 




28 44 


27 


6 


56 \ 




2 


15 48 




18 58 


14 


5 


55 


1 


4 i 


26 45 


( 


51 28 


11 


5 


54 


3 


12 ; 


34 49 




53 26 


6 


4 


58 


5 ; 


21 


15 46 




10 20 




3 


53 


10 ; 


34 ( 


38 53 




24 4 


i 


1 


51 5 


21 


54 


57 28 




20 5 


3 




50 ' 


14 


37 


14 25 




4 2 






49 


ro 


?5 


14 11 




2 1 






48 


75 


50 


11 3 




2 






47 


38 


il 


6 




1 1 






46 


50 


12 


1 










45 


35 


6 


1 










44 


11 


1 


2 










43 


11 














42 
















41 






i 










40 


1 














39 
















38 


i 














37 


1 














36 
















35 


i 














4( 


)7 3{ 


^1 3( 


30 350 


3' 


rS 391 


386 


342 



For complete tables, see Dr. Bowditch's Growth of Children in 
Papers on Anthropometry, 1894. 



INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS. 



163 



Variations in Weights of Boston School Boys, showing Number 
of Boys of Each Age. {Based on Dr. Bowditch's Table.) 



Pounds. 


8yi 


s. 9 yrs. 10 y 


rs. 11 yrs. 


12 yrs. 


13 yrs. 


14 yrs. 


15 yrs. 


186-190. 














1 




182-186. 


















178-182. 


















174-178. 


















170-174. 


















166-170. 














'i 




162-166. 


















158-162. 










' 








154-158. 














*i 




150-154. 










'i 






4 


146-150. 












'2 




2 


142-146. 












1 


'i 


14 


138-142. 










i 


3 


5 


12 


134-138. 










1 


1 


9 


13 


130-134. 












3 


9 


20 


126-130. 










2 


3 


14 


26 


122-126. 













4 


15 


30 


118-122. 












5 


26 


37 


114-118. 










"4 


12 


35 


44 


110-114. 










5 


15 


34 


59 


106-110. 










8 


30 


47 


53 


102-106. 








2 3 


12 


41 


70 


60 


98-102. 






. 


3 


16 


59 


69 


56 


94-98.. 








1 13 


32 


60 


92 


47 


90-94.. 






i 


4 16 


57 


93 


103 


50 


86-90. . 






1 ] 


L2 29 


76 


131 


97 


37 


82-86.. 




i 


3 ] 


[8 56 


129 


151 


96 


30 


78-82. . 




1 


2 ^ 


t2 100 


157 


177 


72 


19 


74-78.. 




3 i 


J3 1] 


L2 175 


219 


158 


50 


11 


70-74. . 




11 


)5 ! 1( 


56 235 


219 


117 


34 


5 


66-70. . 


f 


50 r„ 


n 2' 


'0 258 


144 


52 


20 


3 


62-66.. 


1( 


)6 2. 


)1 2( 


32 201 


100 


28 


3 




58-62. 


21 


LO 3- 


t3 2S 


J7 117 


36 


10 


2 




54-58.. 


%{ 


53 3^ 


56 1, 


50 64 


24 


4 


1 




50-54.. 


41 


J4 2( 


)8 


79 18 


8 




1 




46-50. . 


2= 


)1 


re 


t4 5 










42-46.. 


j 


)1 1 


L4 


2 










38-42. . 




19 


3 


1 










34-38.. 




1 
















1,4* 


31 1,4 


37 1,3 


33 1,293 


1,253 


1.160 


908 


636 



The heights and weights of girls vary fully as much as those 
of boys. For other ages see Dr. Bowditch's tables. 



Variations in Brain Weight of Eminent Men, Compiled from 
Records of 3IarshaH and Manouvrier.* 



Age. 


Encephalic weight. 
Grammes. 


Eminent man. 


89 


1,457 


Skobeleff, Russian general. 


40 


1,238 


Gr. Harless, physiologist. 


43 


1,294 


Gainbetta, statesman. 


45 


1,403 


Assezat, political writer. 


45 


1,516 


Chauncev Wright, mathematician. 


49 


1,468 , 


Asseline, political writer. 


49 


1,409 


J. Iliiber, philosopher. 


50 (0 


1,313 


Seizel, sculptor. 


50 


1.878 


Coudereau, physician. 


52 


1,358 


Hermann, philologist. 


53 


1,499 


Fuchs, pathologist. 


53 


1,644 


Thackeray, novelist. 


54 


1,530 


De Morny, statesman. 


54 


1,639 


Goodsir, anatomist. 


55 


1,530 


Derichlet, mathematician. 


56 


1,503 


Schleich, writer. 


56 


1,485 


Broca, antliropologist. 


57 


1,559 


Spurzheim, phrenologist. 


57 


1,350 


V. Lasaulx. physician. 


59 


1,436 


Dupuytren, surgeon. 


GO 


1,533 


J. Simpson, physician. 


00 


1.488 


Pfeufer, physician. 


63 


1.398 


Bertillon. anthropologist. 


63 (f) 


1,415 


Melchior Mayer, poet. 


63 


1,449 
1,332 


Lamarque, general. 

J. Hughes Bennett, physician. 


63 


63 


1,830 


G. Cuvier. naturalist. 


64 


1,785 


Abercrombie, physician. 


65 


1,498 


De Morgan, matliematician. 


66 


1,513 


Agassiz, naturalist. 


67 


1,503 


Chalmers, preacher. 


70 


1,353 


Liebig, chemist. 


70 


1.516 


Daniel Webster, statesman. 


71 


1,207 


Dollinger. anatomist. 


71 


1,349 


Fallmerayer, hi.storian. 


71 


1,390 


Whewell, pliilosopher. 


73 


1,590 


Hermann, economist. 


75 


1,410 


Grote, historian. 


77 


1,326 


Hausemann, mineralogist. 


78 


1,493 


Gauss, mathematician. 


79 


1,254 


Tiedemann, anatomist. 


79 


1.403 


Babbage, mathematician. 


79 


1,453 
1,290 


Ch. H. Bischoff, physician. 
Grant, anatomist. 


80 


83 


1.516 


Campbell, lord chancellor. 



* Donaldson's Growth of the Brain, p. 128. 
164 



INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS. 165 

The following brain weights are also recorded: 
Oliver Cromwell, 2,231 grammes; Byron, 2,338 grammes; 
Turgenieff, 2,021 grammes ; but these are perhaps with- 
out satisfactory collateral evidence, unless it be in the 
case of Turgenieff. 

Certainly these tables, reduced to a composite and 
shown in curves, are exceedingly significant and have 
their places in general considerations and plans; but 
the point is raised that no school mechanism can justly 
answer the requirements of the variations typed in 
small degree by these physical conditions. If there 
exists this range of physiological differences, repre- 
sented here by heights and weights only, besides which 
are an endless and limitless number of other factors, it 
can be depended on that there is an infinitely greater 
variation m the psychological characteristics.* 

Psychic Variations. — JSTotwithstanding the wide vari- 
ations in the general physical characteristics of children, 
which are faintly hinted in heights and weights, the 
variations in psychological characteristics are infinitely 
greater. The tables of brain weights given by Vierordt 
and Boyd are of great general value, but the characteris- 
tics which make the child, the man, or the woman can 
never be measured in ounces or grammes. The immense 
range in brain weights indicated in the tables of Mar- 
shall, Manouvrier, Bischoff, Vierordt, and Boyd, and the 
finer quality of the mind of woman compared with man, 
must forever establish the fact that the human mind is 

* C. W. Hetherington, formerly instructor at Stanford Uni- 
versity, but now at Clark University, has for several years been 
working on a Psychology of Individual Differences, which, when 
completed, will open up an enormous field of possibilities. 



166 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

conditioned by physical organs and environment only in 
elementary ways, above which the transcendentalism of 
the psychic and the infinite variations of the ego find 
illimitable expression. The personal equation is a com- 
posite absolutely unique. The varying circumstances 
and constituencies of an endlessly diversified heredity, 
modified still more by an environment never identical, 
and all the countless elements which attend a life of 
free-will agency, contribute to make each individual a 
personality peculiar to himself. Far more than differ 
the leaves of the forest man is differentiated in his wide 
range of psychic characteristics, unclassifiable and illim- 
itable. It is the greatness of man that he is infinite in 
the range of individuality; and the world is richest in 
the individual's reaction in achievement, in contribu- 
tion, in co-operation, and in happiness. 

Every teacher has before her in the school room 
a variation in human history, in individual abilities, 
and in unbounded future that needs no outside illustra- 
tions to establish the doctrine here advanced. No two 
classes are alike in abilities, and no two children of 
even the same parents are duplicates. How infinitely 
greater, then, must be the variations in personality of 
the forty or fifty individuals who have come to the 
present with all the wide range of conditioning fac- 
tors that enter into life! The recognition of these indi- 
vidual differences must be fundamental in scientific 
education. 

The existence and range of these variations have 
been but faintly comprehended in the policies of schools. 
Children of all degrees of ability, opportunity, natural 
endowment, and life purpose have been classed together. 



INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS. 167 

Three factors — the child's best development, a time 
element, and uniformity in requirement, which can 
never constitute a perfect unity — have been the erro- 
neous and impossible trinity of the schoolman's ignis 
fatuus. Under the operations of this uniformity these 
wide-ranged variations have disappeared from view. 
School people have been thinking of an average which 
conserves really only a small number of pupils and loses 
sight of an almost infinite range of variations not easily 
recognised. Attention is once more directed to the 
.table of ages.* It is apparent that the average age 
completely loses sight of the enormous number of indi- 
vidual extremes, which in this case is startling. 

It has been supposed that a graded school fairly 
well gathers together in classes those of uniform ability. 
The fallacy of this policy is well shown in the various 
tables indicating the differentiation of working abilities, 
elsewhere presented, f The very existence of these dif- 
ferences in abilities demands that the school must give 
individual opportunity. 

It is frequently supposed that the senior class in 
the high school, representing as it does the survival of 
the most favoured, is fairly well graded. Let us see 
if this is the case. From many studies throwing light 
on this question, attention is directed to the one on the 
following page from the Field High School of Leomin- 
ster, Mass. Mr. Wallace E. Mason, the principal, is one 

* Table of Ages, Chapter II, p. 19. 

f The reader is requested to turn back to the tables represent- 
ing the differences in working abilities as shown in the studies of 
tlie free working classes in Latin and mathematics, described in 
Chapter II, pp. 19 and 33. 
13 



SENIOR REVIEW GEOMETRY, FIELD HIGH SCHOOL, 
LEOMINSTER, MASS. 

September 6 to December 14, 1890. Lineal measurement of work accomplished by 
class of 26 pupils. The figures at the top represent units of work. 



10 20 , 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 100 170 








1 






79 








114 




13S 






1G8 
































































['"' 




















































134 






167 












^ 






S3 




1U3 


1 




13'3 












































05 




87 


























40 




56 






87 




















.50 
































































































C 


1 


73 








1 


n 








107 










46 


























"^ 


1 














n 
















6;^ 
















































118 





































1G8 



INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS. 169 

of the leading individualists of the country, and from 
many studies similar to this has long since recognised 
the injustice of herding children. 

On the very face of this enormous variation lq the 
working abilities of a senior class, how utterly unjust 
is the practice of ranking pupils by honour or any mech- 
anism which compares that which can not be compared! 

"But," says some one, "this surely can not repre- 
sent an average high school." 

It does not represent an average high school, for 
in its essential conservations it is infinitely above the 
average high school. But this much is true: every 
attempt made in this country (and illustration could 
be made by scores of examples) to permit pupils to 
work according to their natural abilities has shown 
approximately the same wide range of variations. (See 
tables in Chapter II.) 

What is the graded school going to do with these 
pupils who have covered only fifty or sixty units of 
work? Are they qualified for graduation? Certainly 
they are as far as anything is shown by this table. 
But suppose a lower class in the ordinary elementary 
or secondary school exhibits this range of variation; 
what becomes of tlie pupil accomplishing only forty or 
forty-six units ? 

"Such a pupil,'" replies some schoolman, "is never 
permitted to do only forty or fifty units. He is helped 
on by the momentum of the class." 

I will tell you what becomes of him. If he holds 
his courage together long enough to get that far along 
he is rushed over work he does not understand. If he 
is not promoted, he repeats exactly the same work he 



170 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

had before; a year is taken right out of his life. If 
he does not repeat the grade, his work is full of rotten 
places on which no solid superstructure can be built. 
Is it a matter of any surprise that school work has no 
personal interest to him, that he goes " as the quarry 
slave scourged " to his task, that he is a miserable 
misfit, to be dubbed, by the ignorance of the school, a 
dullard or a dunce? But the fact of the matter is, he 
is soon crowded out and is not counted in the " number 
belonging." 

On the other hand, what opportunity in the graded 
school has the pupil who has accomplished 168 units of 
work, or the two with 167 units? Certainly more than 
the one of -40 units, because three fourths of the teach- 
er's time is usually spent on the bright pupils. But 
have these rapid workers full, free opportunity to live 
up to the best that is within them? And, after all, 
in the light of the world's experience with the flower- 
ing of great men, is it not a mistake for the school 
to say who are the superior souls, and whether they are 
to be found among the precocious or the plodders? 

Says Dr. Edward Everett Hale: * " I came home at 
the end of the first month with a report which showed 
that I was ninth in a class of fifteen. That is about the 
average rank which I generally had. I showed it to 
my mother because I had it. I thought she would not 
like it. To my great surprise and relief she said it 
was a good report. I said I thought she would be dis- 
pleased because I was so low in the class. ' Oh,' she 
said, ' that is no matter. Probably the other boys are 

* Dr. TTalp, in Tlow T was Ediicaterl. 



INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS. 171 

brighter than you. God made them so, and 3'ou can 
not help that.' " 

In a recent address before the British Medical Asso- 
ciation, Dr. G. E. Shuttleworth remarks: * " A rational 
educational system will of course recognise the fact that 
all children are not cast in the same mould ; that there 
are inherent, often inherited, differences in each pupil's 
powers, and that to obtain the best results, instruction 
must be adapted to idiosyncrasies and proportioned to 
varying capacities." 

Evolution, in its uplift of all life and particularly 
in the ascent of man, has reached its heights through 
processes that have always recognised the values of 
strengths. If the differences in innate potentiality 
count for nothing, then there is no use of the horti- 
culturist exercising care in the selection of seeds; one 
kind will produce as good fruit as another. If natural 
endowment had contributed nothing to progress and 
achievement, a sorry world this would be. Success in 
future mission is dependent on the evolution of the 
innate in man in adjustment to the purposes of life. 
It is a revelation to note that the creators in the world 
of science and industry have to no considerable extent 
come up through the graded school ; that the successful 
business men of the day were not trained in the city; 
and that even the students who have knocked at the 
door of the college have largely come from outside our 
mechanical system. 

Several questions present themselves for considera- 
tion. First, to what extent should the school aim at 

* Dr. G. E. Shuttleworth. in ^Mental Overstrain in Education. 



172 AN IDEAL SCHOOL, 

symmetrical development? Second, should it be built 
primordially for development along lines of strength? 
Third, how shall individual training be possible in mass 
education? Fourth, what place has individuation in 
the preparation of man for his higher sociologistic re- 
lations ? 

Question first: To ivhat extent sliall the school aim 
at symmetrical development? 

Simply for the correction of weaknesses in so far as 
they condition man's happiness and the normal exercise 
of higher faculties. But these weaknesses must be 
reached by their individual recognition and by pre- 
scription of exercises best calculated for their cor- 
rection. This opens up a field infinitely larger than 
the school has ever attempted to occupy. To whatever 
extent related studies and exercises condition the best 
expression of higher faculty and endowment, symmet- 
rical education has something to offer, but no further. 

What folly there has been in putting a surfeit of 
mathematics on certain girls, when there may be a hun- 
dred other departments of work in her particular field 
where these girls may surpass their schoolmates ! This 
one practice, illustrative of others, tells of a fearful mis- 
application and loss of energy which could have been 
utilized with enriching results in the best development 
of the pupil. 

Question second: Shall the school he built primor- 
dially for development along lines of strength? 

Most certainly so, with all normal individuals. 
With the general correction of weaknesses already dis- 
cussed, and with enough of general introduction and 
survey to enable the pupils to choose wisely, education 



INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS. 173 

should early take on a recognition of natural endow- 
ments, chief interests, and well-defined trend. Man 
is too complex to permit much development in all di- 
rections. Besides, he was not created symmetrical, as 
the world counts symmetry, and in his life upward he 
has reached all his achievements in science, industry, 
literature and art through the exercises of faculties 
wherein he has been individually the most gifted. We 
need an education of differences, of parts wherein man 
is individually the strongest. As President Jordan has 
better said, if a man proposes to climb a high mountain 
it does not pay him to waste his energies in climbing 
all the foothills in the neighbourhood. Even so, it is 
a good thing for a young person early to find his lead- 
ing interest and then give opportunity for his growing 
strength. 

Question tliird: How shall individual training be 
possible in mass education? 

The solution of a problem so vast as this certainly 
has its very great difficulties. Under ordinary circum- 
stances it is almost impossible to do much, for the 
moment attempt is made to conserve the interest of 
the individual, just then education becomes complex 
and continues to grow in difficulty in proportion as 
such conservation is realized. But that is not the first 
issue to be considered. If the best education of child 
or man is reached through his consideration as a per- 
sonal being, requiring a specific study of his nature and 
interests and an individual prescription of exercises 
best calculated to give free expression to his growing 
strength ; if his education is to continue all the natural 
processes which, through evolution, has given us the 



174 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

glory of all life; and if it is to respect the funda- 
mental principles of divine economy as exemplified in 
all that goes toward the making of character — then the 
first duty for the educator is to attempt to furnish 
that education. The fact that the individual must find 
his education in contact with the mass is entirely to 
his advantage; but he in turn has the most to offer 
the mass in proportion as he is educated as an indi- 
vidual. The details presented in our discussion of 
methods will give some living illustration of how enter- 
prising teachers are finding their way to an effective 
answer to this question. 

Question fourth: What place has individuation in the 
preparation of man for his higher sociologistic re- 
lations ? 

Let not the position of the individualists be misun- 
derstood. There is no intelligent one of them who be- 
lieves in isolation, or who despises the proper place of 
the class and of the lecture, or who forgets man's rela- 
tions to his fellows. The individualist holds that the 
school must fit the child; that it must eliminate uni- 
formity in requirement, passive waiting, dead time, 
repetition of lessons because of others' faults, premature 
skipping and half-way performance of important exer- 
cises, non-promotion, bad motive, and unjust rivalry. 
He demands that there must be recognition of heredity 
and environment and trend as conditioning factors; 
that there must be opportunity for the exercise of natu- 
ral endowment, living interest, and choice; that there 
must be continuous progress, daily promotion, the per- 
formance of work of specific fitness, and the working of 
one's soul into the process; that there must be closer 



INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS. 175 

and more sympathetic association with higher person- 
ahty; and that all of one's education must be related 
to life purposes. Every school plan must be tried by 
the test to what extent it better fits man for his rela- 
tions with his fellows; in what way he can make the 
highest contribution to the happiness and enjoyment 
of mankind. This is the fundamental purpose of the 
better education of the individual. Tlie perfection of 
the community is dependent on the perfection of the 
individual. ) " The best field of corn is that in which 
the individual stalks are most strong and most fruit- 
ful. The strongest nation is that in which the indi- 
vidual man is most helpful and most independent." 
(Jordan.) /There can be no great development of so- 
ciety excepting as the individual is made the unit in 
education. ( " No chain is ever stronger than its indi- 
vidual links.") 

If the school is to be life, as Professor Dewey says 
it must be, it can only reach that realization by con- 
forming its processes to life. All business life, in the 
rise and fall of commercial man, is conditioned upon 
the individual. Man's industries and achievements in 
every field of science, literature, art, and economics have 
no other foundation. The law of the court recognises 
only individual responsibility. The church accepts no 
other person's confession of faith. / In the whole realm 
of ethics and divine economy, all for the benefit of 
universal man, there is no recognition of any plan by 
which society may become strong and good, excepting 
as the individual unit is strong and good. It is the 
universal law of Nature, of man, and of God. In no 
other way can come being, growth, and salvation. 



170 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

Then the individualist is the true sociologist, be- 
cause he furnishes the only foundation on which good 
society can be built — the capable unit. To ignore, sim- 
ply from the suggestion of the term, the high purposes 
and ultimate end of individualism, is a misconception 
of great ideals. The individualogistic purposes in edu- 
cation have no value whatever excepting as they are 
swallowed up in the higher soeiologistic relations of 
man, of which they form the nucleus essence. By this 
measure of soeiologistic value everything in the plans to 
follow should he tested. 



CHAPTER IX. 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 



" Did the Almighty, holding in his right hand Truth and in 
his left hand Search after Truth, deign to tender me the one I 
might prefer, in all humility but without hesitation I would 
request Search after Truth." (Lessing.) 

UNDERSTANDING HOW that oiir school is to be or- 
ganized under ideal circumstances, and with proper cor- 
relations, it is desirable that the division of instruction 
should be largely departmental for all grades above the 
play school. The arguments for this form of organiza- 
tion are: 

1. That the child may be in contact with the richer 
suggestions of several minds. 

2. That the child may be longer in association with a 
given teacher for the sake of personal influence and that 
his work may be better related and more continuous. 

3. That he may have, in his early years, the same 
high quality of instruction that has been vouchsafed 
to the university student. 

4. That every study may have its well-equipped 
laboratory, which is largely impossible when equipment 
is divided up and duplicated in many scattered schools. 

*' / call your frst proposition info discussion at once" 
remarJcs some grammar master. " Wherein is the su- 
perior valve of contact ivith several minds'?" 

1 i i 



178 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

With several teachers the child's views of life are 
more normal, each being corrective of the other; his 
conceptions are fed from a richer source, just as one 
gets more from a glimpse into the gardens of an 
expert horticulturist than he does in the garden of 
the ordinary home; just as also the child who has trav- 
elled and seen much has the wider fund of knowl- 
edge on which to base his imagination and generaliza- 
tions. 

" I agree with you," says a teacher, " in your state- 
ment that a pupil's work in a given subject may he bet- 
ter connected, freer from rotten places and overlaps 
with more opportunity for short-cuts, and may he done 
in a shorter time; hut hoiu about the question of in- 
fluence? How can the teacher have as much chance 
to Tcnow the child and for influence, when there are, 
say, five teachers, giving her only one fifth of the child's 
time?" 

On the basis of one year's procedure, I admit that 
there might be loss in this respect; but we must not 
forget that the same teacher would be with the child 
for five years and probably longer. This of itself is 
more than compensation. 

Is not the discipline more difficuU irhen the worh is 
departmental? 

It is more difficult, because the weakness of an in- 
ferior teacher becomes more apparent. The pupils have 
opportunity to know good and bad, and rebel against 
imposition. It is infinitely better that this should be 
the case than that a child should remain five-fifths time 
under a poor teacher. Besides, it soon weeds out the 
poor teacher. 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 179 

Do you tliinh that the quality of the instruction 
would he better 'i 

Most certainly I do. It would raise all teaching to 
the level of the specialist. Probably not more than one 
third of our teachers can properly give instruction in 
music, and scarcely more than that number can do very 
high work in drawing. It is probable this would appear 
true of all the other studies, if the inadequacies were 
as easily recognised. It is not simply that teachers 
are not endowed equally, but they have not time to pre- 
pare for universal work to any high degree of excel- 
lence. Departmental work ploughs much deeper fur- 
rows. Besides, it would bring the descent of higher 
scholarship and higher method into the lower grade 
school. Sometimes there is more education in a single 
half hour in contact with a superior soul than in a month 
of ordinary school-room work where no one exercise can 
be very much vitalized with great inspiration, 

"7 have observed" remarks some interested mother, 
" that departmental trorJc often leads to overdemand 
from the teachers. As each teacher is anxious to get 
full value to her department and does not Jcnoiv hoio 
much assignment of ivorJc has been made by other 
teachers, the child is ivorl-ed up to the highest notch of 
endeavour and frequently much overworl-ed.'''' 

That is true under the older forms of work where 
the work is performed under assignment of the day be- 
fore; but in our school there is no technical study out 
of school. The work is largely laboratory. All the 
child's time, devoted to any given study, is performed 
in that laboratory; and when he leaves that room he 
also leaves that department of work. The child has 



180 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

opportunity to do to-day just what he can do to-day. 
To-morrow's work takes care of itself when to-mor- 
row comes. 

Would you have the pupils change from rovm to 
room, or would the teachers exchange places'^ 

Preferably the pupils should change. This enables 
us to centre equipment in a given room and make it 
a laboratory in every sense of the word. Think, under 
the plan of a school park where hundreds of children 
of approximately the same age are gathered together, 
of the enormous opportunity there would thus be to 
centralize equipment, otherwise scattered and dupli- 
cated, in the enrichment of the various laboratories, and 
yet at much less expense. The school furniture would 
be of the right size. The several rooms, of even the 
same department, would be grouped together with adap- 
tation for study, laboratory work, seminar, lantern 
illustration, and lecture. Literature would be taught 
in a library; science would have its rooms for all kinds 
of investigations; the history room would be adorned 
with globes, charts, pictures, reliefs, books, curios, and 
original data ; mathematics would have its tools and 
instruments for measurement and application; geog- 
raphy, its globes, reliefs, maps, books of travel, speci- 
mens, museum and representative forms; art would 
have its studio; music, its concert chamber; the gymna- 
sium, its room for measurements, mechanical room, 
exercise room, play room, and baths; manual training, 
its shops of different trades, etc. 

The centralization of the barren rooms and meagre 
equipment, ordinarily scattered through a city because 
of many buildings and repeated duplications, into a 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 181 

single great plant like that described, would give, with- 
out extra expense, a miniature world and opportunities 
of such character that even the child in the primary 
school would be lifted into the richer atmosphere that 
has hitherto belonged exclusively to university life. In 
less degree, departmental work, under proper organi- 
zation, has its value in any school.* 

It is to be recognised, however, that in departmental 
organization there is always possible some correlation 
of related subjects aroimd major factors. This mate- 
rially simplifies the programme, does away with so 
much fragmentary work, and greatly economizes time 
and effort. 

How about the time ivasied and the difficulties in 
discipline attending on such movements of pupils?' 

There is never time wasted in the intervals between 
exercises. As far as the difficulties in discipline go, it 
is a good thing that there should be some free vent and 
movements between periods of work. The best order in 
the world can be found in a graveyard. However, dif- 
ficulties of this kind arise largely from lack of proper 
organization. In one of Superintendent Vansickle's 
schools in North Denver, Colo., I saw a thousand chil- 
dren moving freely in the halls, with no direct super- 
vision, but without the least disturbance. 

Physical Culture. 

The problems involved in the physical training of 
children are those pertaining to food, sleep, exercise, 

* See President Eliot's address on Secondary Schools before 
the New York Convocation in \S9ry, Bulletin No. 32. 



182 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

l^roper mental stimuli, and, for some cases, mechanical 
correction of malformations. 

Food. — Even in this enlightened age the essential 
elements and distinctive purposes of foods are little 
understood by those who have the feeding of children. 
The fact that all children can not well be fed alike, that 
there are differences between the child and the adult, 
and that different kinds of occupations frequently call 
for specific foods, enters to no considerable extent into 
our home domestic economy. There must be a more 
intelligent co-ordination between the school and the 
home, for which the home is ready whenever the school 
is prepared to lead. The home in the past has received 
little from the school in the way of communications, 
excepting concerning delinquencies for which the school 
probably has been at fault. The enormous association 
of mothers in club organizations throughout the coun- 
try, following the leadership largely of Superintendent 
Button's community work * at Brookline, Mass., pre- 
sents an opportunity which the school should utilize. 
If capable school people, under wise procedure, will 
prepare suggestions for the scientific feeding of chil- 
dren, the mothers of this country will rise up and call 
such a school blessed. The delightful little mono- 
graph. Suggestions for School Work, prepared by the 
AYomen's Club (1,000 members), of Denver, Colo., is a 
magnificent illustration of what earnest helpfulness 
may do from one side of this question. Now, what can 
the school do from its own well-qualified standpoint? 

The pupil's book of prescribed directions concerning 

* Dutton's Social Phases in Education. 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 183 

food, sleep, and exercises, prepared by Miss Caroline 
B. Palmer * for her six hundred girls in the Oakland 
(Cal.) High School, is the best thing on this subject 
yet issued by any school. 

In our ideal school the noonday meal, and perhaps 
two meals for the little ones, will be served at the 
school; not to save time, but as a desirable school ex- 
ercise. This will not be the questionable lunch fur- 
nished in many schools, but a better meal of proper 
food, to be followed by ample relaxation and play. Such 
a meal is also a valuable social and economic exercise, 
of great influence in carrying higher ideals into many 
homes. 

Cooking, taught in the schools, will be a great help 
in leading to a day when school children will be better 
fed. The drinking of an abundance of pure, distilled 
water needs also encouragement from the school. Few 
people drink enough water. 

Sleep. — The importance of adequate rest can scarce- 
ly be too much emphasized. As a rule, students do 
not spend enough time in sleep ; and the hours actually 
spent in sleep do not always have full time given to 
relaxation. Normal fatigue in itself is a good thing; 
but no one " has a right to incur more fatigue in a day 
than the sleep of the next night will recover from " 
(Drew). To go without adequate sleep should be re- 
garded as a physical crime, and this fact should be 
taught by the school. As has already been stated, the 
children of ages five, six, and seven need approximately 

* Miss Palmer was formerly associated with the coterie of 
workers having in charge the educational experiments connected 
with the Industrial Public Schools of Pueblo, Colo. 
14 



184 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

twelve hours of regular sleep; of ages eight, nine, and 
ten need eleven hours; of ages eleven, twelve, thirteen, 
and fourteen, ten hours; of ages fifteen, sixteen, and 
seventeen, nine hours or more; and even students of the 
college and university can not well afford to take less. 
The desirability of a midday nap for all ages should not 
be overlooked. Children should be educated to the doc- 
trine that no one ever loses time by seeking rest and 
recuperation. 

This is another subject where the co-operation of 
the home and school is essential. It is a legitimate 
province for suggestion from the school. 

From the practices of the Pestalozzi-Froebel House, 
of Berlin, there comes a suggestion for the play school. 
At midday, after the hour of play intermission, the 
children, thirty or forty in number of kindergarten age, 
are gathered in a large room, where on floor rugs each 
one stretches himself out for his noon nap. The win- 
dows are darkened, the children close their eyes, soft 
music is played, and in a few minutes the entire school is 
asleep. Why should a child asleep at his desk in an 
American school be such an unusual thing? 

Physical Exercise. — We come now to the considera- 
tion of exercise. Kothing in all the possibilities of the 
school can take the place of free play. Calisthenics are 
right in their place, but play is the law of growth. The 
best exhibition in the United States of play as a school 
factor can be seen at Andover, Mass. Here sixteen 
acres or more are the playground of 670 pupils. The 
entire school plays — teachers and all. Such a repertoire 
of plays, calling into co-operation the entire school, no- 
where else was ever seen. And what delighted children 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 185 

and equally profited teachers ! What merry laughter, 
sparkling eyes, ruddy cheeks, and active limbs! And, 
after that, what sympathy in the school room and turn- 
ing of other energy on delighted work !* 

Here is the sand yard for the little ones; grounds 
for basket-ball, tennis (three courts), baseball, and run- 
ning games for the older ones ; games of all kinds for 
the entire school; and without are the passers-by, paus- 
ing in the street to watch the merry children at play, 
and wishing themselves young again. 

Besides, play being Nature's normal exercise, no- 
where else can the teacher gain such an influence for 
good over her pupils. To the glory of Andover, be it 
said, the teachers all play. What a happy spectacle, 
also, it has been to see the great president of Stanford 
University playing baseball on the college diamond! 
For three years the university faculty team was so 
strong that the students could not wrest from them 
a single victory. 

Tributary to effective results in every other depart- 
ment of work, well-equipped gymnasiums occupy cen- 
tral positions in our plans for the intermediate and 
high schools. Good health is so much a condition sub- 
ject to command, that the means to such command must 
be carefully taught. This is not simply as a means 
to well-being in the present, but also a preventive of 

* Johnson's Education by Plays and Games (Ped. Sem., vol. 
iii) ; Johnson's An Educational Experiment (Ped. Sem., vol. vi) ; 
Croswell's Amusements of Worcester Children (Ped. Sem., vol. 
vi) ; Gulick's Psychological, Pedagogical, and Religious Aspects of 
Group Games (Ped. Sem., vol. vi) are valuable contributions to 
the literature of this subject. 



186 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

ill-health and escape therefrom in the future. The man 
or woman who in early years has had no physical train- 
ing, knows not where to turn when overtaken by difh- 
culty; but the child trained in the gymnasium goes 
forth to meet the future, holding in his hands the keys 
to good health. If there is nothing more than this in 
the benefits of physical culture in our schools, it is 
much. 

However, there is more, for the robust and well- 
developed child in the school is the marked exception. 
A capable expert, watching the dismissal of several hun- 
dred children from a school one day, remarked to me 
that there was scarcely a child in the whole number 
who did not reveal, to his practised eye, some condition 
of physical defect. Under our school of better conform- 
ity to hygienic laws in all its work there would cer- 
tainly be less difficulties of this kind. Still the liabili- 
ties to physical weakness are so insistent that the well- 
equipped department, devoted to this one fundamental 
essential, must be a cardinal feature of every school. 
The importance of regular habits in exercise must be 
established by daily training. To make the exercises 
anything less than daily is to put the work on the same 
level of 'feeding by irregular meals. " In public health 
is public wealth." 

But from the very start there should be present the 
watchful, competent eye that seeks out the children of 
malformation or physical weakness. These children 
need the removal of causes, and provision by special 
exercises calculated to make them strong. Every child 
should be examined; and a careful record should be 
kept of all weaknesses, past sicknesses, injuries, and 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 187 

hereditary tendencies. Based on this record should be 
the prescription of exercises to make the pupils strong 
and to keep them strong. A child's life-book, giving 
his physical record from birth and from year to year, 
would be of incalculable benefit. Certain team exer- 
cises and class drills may be helpful, with exemption of 
exceptional pupils; but the basic element in the treat- 
ment should be individual. Miss Palmer's work, for- 
merly at Pueblo, Colo., but now in the Oakland (Cal.) 
High School, is particularly noteworthy in this respect. 

With a school plant so large as contemplated in 
these plans, and regardful of the frequency with which 
children of marked malformations are found among 
large numbers, but thereby generally deprived of school 
privileges, a department equipped with mechanical ap- 
pliances for the correction of grievous physical difficul- 
ties should be possible. If the sanatoriums are able 
to accomplish such extraordinary corrections by scien- 
tific mechanical treatment, often in short time, then 
this important adjunct to the gymnasium is a perfectly 
legitimate one for the school of large size. In the days 
of Sparta, and also in Plato's ideal Eepublic, these 
children with malformations were put to death by 
the state; but the conscience of an enlightened people 
will recognise in the triumphs of modern skill a depart- 
ment of work, of this life-saving character, essentially 
within the province of the coming school. 

In the plans for our quadrangle school for children 
of the play school, and also for those in the elementary 
school, there is provision in the central building for 
the within-doors play room necessary for unfavourable 
weather. In our central building in the intermediate 



188 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

and high school quadrangles were located also the gym- 
nasiums, with sei)arate departments for the sexes in the 
high school. Connected with the gymnasium should 
he the school baths and the swimming pools, and also 
the mechanical room. The school bath at Brookline, 
Mass.,* costing $50,000, is the finest thing of the kind 
in the United States. The great swimming pool, sur- 
rounded with its individual baths of all kinds, each sex 
having its assigned da3's, is a revelation to all interested 
in the possibilities of this desirable adjunct of the 
school. 

The director of the physical department should also 
have charge of the cleansing of the buildings, the analy- 
sis of air and water, the insistence on individual drink- 
ing-cups and individual towels, the prescription of food, 
the medical inspection of the schools, the destruction 
of all books exposed to contagion, the quarantining of 
special cases, the suggestions to the home concerning 
health questions, the separation and special treatment 

* The Brookline baths consist of a large swimming tank for 
general purposes, a smaller tank in the instruction room, a num- 
ber of rain baths of the Gegenstrom pattern, dressing rooms, direc- 
tor's rooms, waiting rooms, ladies' hair-dressing rooms, etc. The 
swimming tanks are lined with white glazed brick with floors of 
light adamantine mosaic. The main tank is 80 feet long and 26 
feet wide, has an average depth of 4^ feet, and 42 surrounding 
dressing rooms. There is an abundance of light and sunshine. 
The smaller pool is 22 feet long and 10 feet wide, and has an aver- 
age depth of 3i feet, 6 large dressing rooms, and a rain bath. 
The water, constantly changing, is kept at a temperature of 78°, 
the temperature of the room being several degrees higher. The 
director is a graduate doctor, and is assisted by a competent lady 
instructor. 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 18d 

of defectives, the limitation of school exercises, and 
other questions pertaining to the children's health. 

Concerning the treatment of the eye, is it altogether 
a wild speculation to say that, as evolution has given 
us the eye in its present shape and character in response 



CAUTION. 

Reader, your eyesight is worth more to you 
than any information you are likely to gain 
from this book, however valuable it may be. 
You are therefore earnestly cautioned — 

1. To be sure that you have sufficient light, 
and that your position be such that you not 
only avoid the direct rays upon your eyes, but 
that you also avoid the angle of reflection. In 
writing, the light should be received over the 
left shoulder. 

2. That you avoid a stooping position and a 
forward inclination of the head. Hold the 
book up. Sit erect also when you write. 

3. That at brief intervals you rest the eyes 
by looking off and away from the book for a 
few moments. 

And you are further cautioned to avoid as 
much as possible books and papers printed in 
small type, and especially such as are poorly 
printed ; also to avoid straining or overtaxing 
the sight in any way. 

You may need to be reminded of the great 
importance of thoroughly cleansing the eyes 
with soft, pure water both morning and even- 
ing. 



to functional operations, there may be in proper exer- 
cises for the eye a possibility of training that may be 



190 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

corrective of many of the defects so common in modern 
life, affecting shape of the ball and lens, muscles con- 
trolling adjustments, and perhaps even the sensitive- 
ness of the retina? 

Books for school use should be printed on paper of a 
slightly yellowish tint * and be free from gloss. The 
type should be round-faced and clear, and a profusion 
of italics avoided, the page narrow, and the ink a dead 
black. Every book should have pasted on the second 
page of the cover a caution similar to the one on page 
189, suggested by Dr. Ward McLean. f 

Nature Work. 

Dr. C. F. Hodge's doctrine of human value in Na- 
ture Study excludes from the school room the stuffed 
specimens of bird and beast, which have done little but 
inoculate the child's mind against all love for animal 
life; the miserable and deadening processes of analysis 
and classification, which have dominated the whole field; 
and brings the child face to face with Nature, which 
he will love, because all life to him now is full of 
human interest. 

Says John Burroughs: | " I recently read a lecture 
on How a Naturalist is Trained, and I was forced to 
conclude that I was not and never could be a naturalist 
at all, that I know nothing of Nature ... I have loved 
Nature and spent many of my days in the fields and 

* Cohn, Javal, Blasin, Kotelmann, and the Hygienic Congress 
of 1880 at Turin. 

f Popular Science Monthly, vol. xiv, p. 85. 
i The Outlook, February 4, 1899. 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 191 

woods in as close intimacy with her varied forms of life 
as I could bring about, but a student of Nature in any 
strict scientific sense I have never been. What knowl- 
edge I possess of her creatures has come to me through 
contemplation and enjoyment, rather than through de- 
liberate study of her." 

With the same lofty view and noble purpose. Dr. 
Hodge clears away the dead inanities which have so 
long killed in the germ all childish interest in Na- 
ture study, and proceeds to construct a plan of pro- 
cedure that is an inspiration in itself. " It is our present 
misfortune," says he,* " to be living under a most in- 
adequate notion, a dead-book museum conception of 
science . . . Science is the unceasing struggle of the 
human mind after truth. Furthermore, this struggle 
is so inseparably linked with normal growth and vigor, 
and so full of the joy of human action, that the strug- 
gle is to be preferred above actual possession of the 
truth itself . . . What we need, then, in Nature study, 
as in all other subjects, is a quality of knowledge which 
shall be alive and set the child's face right toward 
the universe, and thus form the foundation for active, 
helpful living." 

Let me describe something of this work as I have 
seen it in several visits to the Upsala School of Worces- 
ter, Mass. 

The characteristic features of the Nature study 
work in this school, at least as far as I have seen it, 
are: 1. The inspiration of every child by the vitalizing 

* Hodge's Foundations of Nature Study. Pedagogical Semi- 
nary, April, 1900. 



11)2 -'^N IDEAL SCHOOL. 

conception that he too may add to the sum total of the 
world's happiness and knowledge by the growth of a 
plant far better than the world has ever seen. 2. In 
the domestication and protection of the wild birds, so 
that all life, even in the city, may be glad with the pres- 
ence of the singing, companionable, and useful birds, 
which under proper management are really very easily 
tamed. 3. In the study of the pests which have made 
horticulture and, in some instances, even human hap- 
piness impossible; and their subjugation by simple 
methods, so that even a child may " have dominion 
over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, 
and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over 
every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth." 

Here is a school filled with experimental plants, 
singing birds, aquaria with their varied life, vivaria 
with imprisoned pests, school gardens for experiments 
with all kinds of growing things; but, best of all, a 
school thoroughly organized for the protection of birds, 
frogs, toads, and other useful animals; for the de- 
struction of pests ; for zealous attempts to " make two 
blades of grass grow where one grew before " and to 
encourage all useful life to " be fruitful and multiply " ; 
and for carrying into the homes plant culture, build- 
ing of bird houses, and a love for Nature that are abso- 
lutely transforming in their suggestions to older per- 
sons, who under the influence of the school are witnesses 
to the old, old regeneration, " And a little child shall 
lead them." But in this school there is not a stuffed 
animal or dead form of any kind. Everything is life 
in all its beauty, activity, usefulness, and charm. Even 
the little children are taught the delights of feeding the 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 193 

birds, and ways to make the wild birds come aud eat 
out of the hand. 

Each child is given seeds for experiments at his 
home, to see who can raise the best fruit trees, vegeta- 
bles, and flowers. Almost every day there is oppor- 
tunity for each one to tell the results of his work ; and 
the whole story of the preparation of the ground, the 
planting of the seed, the degrees of sun and moisture, 
the appearance of the first shoot and its daily growth by 
inches, number of leaves, branches, and buds, and all the 
Joyful successes and tearful pathetic tragedies, come out 
from the pure interest of the little original horticul- 
turist and for the best guidance of others. No farmers' 
institute could listen to a more profitable discussion, 
full of cautions and suggestions, than at this school 
gathering where tradition and custom do not dwarf, at 
the very beginning, the best culture of plants. Then, 
at the close of the year, comes the exhibition day ; and, 
as the parents and school friends gather in, each child 
brings from his home, for the awarding of premiums, 
the best products of his year's work. What an inspira- 
tion is this ! What a suggestion for Nature study and 
for all the work of the school ! This is education. 

I was very glad to find that all this plant study 
is not confined to flowers, but that attention is given 
also to vegetables, fruit trees, and even the forest trees. 
Think of the inspiration to a child in actually growing 
a chestnut-tree or an oak. Peach-trees there were by 
the hundreds, some three years old. 

Then, without are the school gardens. To grade 
four is assigned a long garden which, it is designed, 
shall contain every useful plant growing in Worcester 



194 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

County. Every plant has its little name tablet, which 
the children study as they work in culture of the plants, 
and which is an endlessly enjoyable study even in recess 
time. Grade eight has the care of the lawn; grades 
five, six, and seven, their group beds devoted to the ex- 
perimental culture of useful vegetables ; and I am sure 
there is something for the little ones. The individual 
beds are at the home. 

One little girl, ten years old, says, concerning her 
bachelor's-buttons: " j\Iy seeds were given me in March, 
and when I got home I went to the woods for some dirt. 
I came home and sifted my dirt. After I had sifted it, 
I planted my seeds. I patted the dirt with my hand 
and watered the seeds. I put it in the sun. In about 
two days my plant was up. In three days after it was 
six inches high. But now it is twenty inches high. It 
has nine buds on it. One bud is nearly out. I can see 
six more buds coming. I water my plants every day." 
Concerning the school garden she says : " I raked many 
stones out of our garden and brought rich black loam 
from the woods to put on it. We planted lady's slip- 
pers, violets, white violets, ferns, wild oats,, Solomon's 
seals, pussy willows, celandines, lilies-of-the-valley, sun- 
flowers, mustards, buttercups, columbines, jack-in-the- 
pulpit, bird's-foot, false Solomon's seal, cowslip, wild 
geraniums, dog's-tooth, money plants, mallow, cat- 
briers, swamp pinks, and sweetbriers." 

Another child writes : " We all got our peach seeds 
of Dr. Hodge. I planted mine in the same way I did 
my bachelor's-buttons. They came up very fast indeed. 
ISTow my tree is an inch high, and I am very happy. I 
hope it will bear a lot of fruit when it grows larger." 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 195 

Then in the bird study; following the feeding and 
care of the birds, indicated for the primary children, 
the work continued in its development until in grades 
called five, six, seven, and eight the children were or- 
ganized for the annual bird census and its related work. 
The district tributary to this school was divided into 
four census districts ; and the children of each of these 
grades respectively were organized into a working force 
of census takers, each grade being assigned a quarter 
of the district. The location of every bird's nest was 
carefully indicated by a red star on the census map, 
which was hung on the wall of the school room. Bird 
houses, food, drink, and nest-building material were put 
out to encourage the immigration of new settlers, and 
the warlike, home-destroying English sparrows were 
killed off by systematic poisoning. 

Then there are the bird clubs, called " Ten-to-one 
clubs," * organized " to use every means possible to in- 
crease the numbers of our native wild birds by providing 
them, when necessary, with food, water, shelter, and 
nesting places, by treating them with uniform kindness, 
and especially by protecting, in every way possible, their 
nests, eggs, and young." Hundreds of bird houses are 
mounted on trees, poles, and houses ; food plants are 
cultivated ; drinking and bathing basins are put out on 
posts ; nest material is put conveniently near ; and every 
child vies with the others in seeing how many birds he 
can coax to feed and bathe under his window or to nest 
in his houses. Woe also to the offender who violates 
the sacredness of a bird's home. One boy, a newcomer 

* Hodge's Nature Study Leaflet. Our Common Birds. 



196 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

in the school, was reported, tried, and convicted of hav- 
ing robbed a robin's nest, and, not only that, but of 
having boiled and eaten the eggs. A committee of five 
was appointed to wait on him, which they did with such 
effective remonstrance as to bring the boy's parents 
forthwith to the school. It was reported that in the 
year 1899 there were in the city of Worcester five thou- 
sand school children effectively organized in bird clubs. 
It is no wonder that Worcester has been visited by an 
incoming of birds that is a matter of common remark. 
The bird census at the Upsala school indicated an in- 
crease of thirty per cent in the bird nests in a single 
year. 

The study of toads and frogs has also opened up a 
great field in the schools of Worcester. The revelation 
to Celia Thaxter * that a common toad has a great mis- 
sion to perform in our horticulture ; the statement made 
by Kirtland that a single toad may be worth $19.88 
each season for the cutworms alone destroyed; the dis- 
covery that our water is greatly purified and much larva 
and insect life are destroyed by the tadpole and the 
frog; that our rose-bushes may be kept free from de- 
stroying-lice by the ladybugs; that our robins in the 
cherry-trees are probably after only the wormy fruit; 
that a young cedar bird will take a hundred flies at a 
single meal; that the hornets around the picnic table 
are really only after the flies; that the larva of elm 
beetles, caterpillars, and other destructive pests will be 
abundantly taken care of, if wo will only permit the 
birds to help us ; and that even the mosquito plague may 

* Celia Thaxter's Island Garden. 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 197 

be forestalled by a little kerosene on the waters of 
our ponds and insect-hatching places — what an inter- 
esting and profitable field for the education of chil- 
dren ! It is no wonder the life of the common toad 
or frog is sacred in Worcester, and that children have 
been kno^vn to carry these pets a mile or more in order 
to have their help around the home. 

But what is this — a beehive in the school? Yes, a 
hive just inside the window, with a little gauze-covered 
avenue leading in from outside. The raising of the 
padded sides discovers, through the glass sides, all the 
bees at work and all the processes of their community 
life. Here is the queen bee with her strong encircling 
body-guard repelling every approach ; here are the work- 
ers, busy in storing and sealing up the precious caches 
of honey ; here are the executors of law and order, driv- 
ing out the drones and casting them into exile and star- 
vation — a fit lesson for our own dealing with the tramp 
problem ; and here, at the very entrance, stand two door- 
keepers, admitting no bee until he stops and, as the 
children sa}^, gives the password — what a study for the 
school! 

It was also pleasing to see that the pupils in this 
school were taught how to make their own aquaria. 
Given, a child, a few pieces of glass possibly discarded 
by the photographer, some quartered tin, a soldering 
iron, some aquarium cement, and a little direction, it 
does not take long before every child will have his own 
aquarium and its varied life of fish and plants for 
his endless study and amusement. 

Then, in Nature study, there is the illimitable va- 
riety of exercises suggested by the education of the 



198 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

farm, and here given opportunity for contribution by 
the fact that the school is on a farm. President Hall's 
Boy Life on a Massachusetts Country Farm a Quar- 
ter of a Century Ago,* with all its seventy or more 
different grades and occupations — what a suggestion ! 
The McDonogh School Farm f near Baltimore, the 
George Junior Eepublic J in New York State, the Ab- 
botsholme * in England, and Demolin's L'Ecole des 
Eoches II near Paris, are all living examples of this great 
natural field, which should be put under tribute to re- 
turn the city children to their Eden Lost. 

But what of all this Nature work and its value ? 

First, it has been the foundation of all healthful 
work in the development of man. 

Second, it is perfectly in accord with Nature, so 
fruitful in educative results and so illimitable in its 
available material, that the amazing wonder is, why 
have the schools got so far away in their delving into 
graveyards and dead forms? 

Third, the fundamental keynote of human inter- 
est relates it to practical values affecting the highest 
comfort, success, and happiness of man. Dr. Hodge 
says: "A pair of living birds' eggs, with proper care 
by the children of the country, could produce in ten 
years a pair of birds for every child in the land. . . . 
With a single pine seed, properly cared for by man, 

* Pedajrogical Seminary, vol. i. 

f An Educational Experiment. New York Regents' Bulletin 
No. 32. 

X Croswell's George Junior Republic. 

« The Abbotsholme. 

II Demolin's Anglo-Saxon Superiority. 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 199 

we may cover the continent in an incredibly short 
time with a forest of pines. . . . The bee, by cross fer- 
tilization, has given us all our varieties of fruits and 
flowers. . . . With available room properly planted we 
might easily have ten wild birds to one that we now 
have in our towns and even many of our cities. . . . 
No one has ever yet produced the best and most beau- 
tiful rose, or peach, or bird, or man, or anything else 
that the world is capable of yielding. By proper care we 
can not only have a world full of such birds as we have 
now, but of birds with sweeter song and more and more 
beautiful plumage; and in the presence of these infinite 
possibilities for good or for ill, we must, above all 
things, remember that human action tends to make the 
world a garden or a desert, a paradise of joy and beauty, 
or a vale of tears." 

Fourth, there is high educative value in the inspira- 
tion involved in the discovery to the child that he also 
may have a great part in the evolution of a world of 
beauty, knowledge, and happiness. This is the " knowl- 
edge that is worth most." " With the flood of talk 
and writing we have had about enriching the course 
of study and all the complaints about crowding in too 
many svibjects, it is certainly strange that M'e have 
heard so little about the proper quality of knowledge 
and the means to its attainment." (Hodge.) 

Fifth, the transformation in the world's expecta- 
tion of the child is another great possibility of this kind 
of Nature work. Remarks the same scientist: My 
own experience with children and that kind of iSTature 
work which has some high purpose in it, which really 
presents to their minds something well worth doing, has 
15 



200 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

led me to repudiate as a libel on childhood the theory 
that attributes to him " native cruelty." These are the 
hasty conclusions of that desiccated breed of peda- 
gogues who insist on setting before innocent children 
" asinine feasts of sow-thistles and brambles," grinds of 
minutiae, technicalities and hard names, " abstractions 
of logic and metaphysics," ragged notions and babble- 
ments, while they expected worthy and delightful 
knowledge. My experience has been that children al- 
ways take to knowledge really " worthy and delightful " 
which offers full scope to their passion for activity, like 
ducklings to water, like fledglings to the air. If they 
do not, let us look to the " native cruelty " of the school 
room, rather than cover our own stupidity with assump- 
tions of " native cruelty of childhood." 

This plan of Nature work has been outlined some- 
what fully, and yet very inadequately, because of the 
great gap it is to fill in the school, and also because of 
its suggestiveness as to procedure in the conduct of 
other subjects. 

Is it not unfortunate that so many of our school 
buildings, and the schools themselves, are so lacking in 
great natural artistic ideals and the teachers so prone 
to content themselves with the dry imnatural fields of 
books, when great opportunities are before them? 

High-School Science. 
It is to be hoped that this noble work in Nature 
study will also largely influence the science work of the 
high school ; but it is desirable that students, in this 
period, should come in contact, by direct investigation, 
also with the elementary phenomena, forces, and laws of 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 201 

the physiographic, physical, and chemical world. Prof. 
J. T. Draper's work in the high-school laboratories of 
Pueblo, Colo., Oakland, Cal., and Holyoke, Mass., is per- 
haps the most suggestive contribution in this interest- 
ing field. Laboratories equipped with very few pieces 
of large apparatus, but with much for the pupil's own 
individual work; little is required to be done outside 
the laboratory or the laboratory hour, but there is 
opportunity for much in the laboratory itself; the 
holding of the lecture and general exercise to their 
proper and very useful places, but with all work funda- 
mentally individual; the discarding of the single text, 
and the facing of the pupil up against the greater field, 
with the abundant library even of college texts for his 
help; the progress of the individual at a pace best suited 
to his personal needs, with little reference to the class ; 
the intrinsic worth of order and exactness in all meth- 
ods of scientific approach; and the reliance on sugges- 
tion rather than servile performance under requirement 
— these are the fundamental characteristics of Pro- 
fessor Draper's interesting work. The work of the pu- 
pils is individual, and yet there are present a strength, 
an inspiration and a dignity in work always evident, 
where the pupil finds himself in association with a 
capable, original worker whom he loves and respects 
as his guide and friend. ]\Iuch of the work of Pro- 
fessor Draper's pupils is directed by well-prepared 
sheets of suggestions, giving for each subject a few 
basic directions, a large number of references, but un- 
limited opportunity for personal discoveries. As far 
as is possible under college requirements, the greater 
value of full development of a few subjects over the 



202 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

lesser advantages accruing from many, and particu- 
larly the pursuance of one branch of study for several 
years, is emphasized. Superior to everything else aimed 
at is the crowning delight which comes from personal 
discovery and accomplishment and the infinite worth of 
knowledge in that way gained. 

Perhaps there is no better description of this kind 
of work than that contained in President Hall's Quali- 
tative Analysis of Knowledge : * 

" Some fact in science is discovered and a man 
casually reads about it or is told about it by a friend. 
He probably gains in this way a dim, far-away notion, 
and soon forgets all about it. Second, his friend takes 
him into his laboratory, sets up the apparatus and dem- 
onstrates the discovery before his eyes. From this he 
gets a much clearer knowledge. His friend next places 
the apparatus at his disposal and lets him try the ex- 
periment himself, and his knowledge takes on a still 
stronger quality. It might be difficult now for him to 
forget the circumstances. Suppose, finally, the man 
works out the problem for himself, devises, possibly 
makes, his own apparatus, works days and nights in 
meeting difficulties and in overcoming obstacles, until, 
at last, he has his result definite and clear, until he 
has himself added a new fact to the sum of human 
knowledge. The discovery, the knowledge, has now be- 
come a living part of himself, an inspiration and a sat- 
isfaction as long as he lives." 

With this illustrative definition of knowledge it is 
really unimportant what branch of science or of the 

* Pedagogical Seminary, April, 1900. 



A 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 203 

curriculum is the study in hand ; the great desideratum 
is the discovery, the inspiration. This is another 
illustration of " what knowledge is of most worth." 
However, it is really desirable that the student in 
this period shall be placed in possession, for the sake 
of his later life and work, of the fundamental ele- 
ments of the alphabets and of working tools that be- 
long to work in the physical, chemical, and physio- 
graphic worlds. 

CONSTEUCTION. 

The admirable field which has been so well opened 
up by the kindergarten should still be occupied. The 
exercises in modelling, in designing, in synthesis, and 
in building, as typed in paper-folding and cutting, in 
clay, wax, and sand modelling, in mat weaving, and in 
block and other building, are exceedingly valuable in the 
early development of creative faculty. These same ex- 
ercises are capable of development into much higher 
forms in the modelling of geometric forms and of geo- 
graphic, plant and fruit reliefs,* in basket weaving, in 
paper cuttings representing life,f in architectural con- 
struction using larger blocks, and in the building of 
houses, etc. Sloyd early comes into use, but its char- 
acter may well be transformed. The making of toys 
and playthings would open up an immense field 
of great interest and utility. The top, the whirligig, 
the windmill, the water dam, the water-wheel, the doll's 

* Felix Adler's School, New York; and Connecticut State 
Normal School, New Britain, Conn, 

t Leaflet for Primary Cutting. By Miss Harris, Supervisor of 
Primary Work, Newark, N. J. 



204 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

dress, furniture, and playhouse, the animal pen, and the 
endless other things which boys and girls like, are all 
things of great educational value. Then, a little far- 
ther on, think of the puzzles, kites, bird-houses, aquaria, 
bats, stilts, sleds, wagons, sail-boats, pieces of appa- 
ratus, rustic bridges, traps, picture-frames, desks, shops, 
houses, and all the other creations which spring from 
children's brains. The kite also has great possibili- 
ties. At the Jacob Tome Institute there is a whole 
room full of kites of all sizes, designs, and pur- 
poses, suggested largely by the reading of the little 
pamphlet on kites sent out by the Department of Agri- 
culture. Here were boys of ages eleven to fifteen, under 
the inspiring direction of Professor Aldrich, with a 
series of kites up in the air with more than a mile and 
a half of string. At Andover, Superintendent Johnson 
bought a finely rigged sail-boat and offered it as a 
reward to the boy who would make the best sail- 
boat. There was not a boat made by the com- 
peting boys that did not surpass the model pre- 
mium. In the Upsala school of Worcester, Mass., a 
call from the teacher brought more than two hun- 
dred children of ages ten to fourteen, each carrying 
under the arm a bird-house of his or her construc- 
tion, not counting the hundreds of other bird- 
houses already mounted on trees, poles, and buildings 
in the neighbourhood. Then on through the work of 
the high school are endless correlations of science and 
construction, in the making of levers, incline planes, 
air-pumps, magnets, batteries, steam-engines, induction 
coils, phonographs, telephones, telegraph apparatus, 
telescopes, and a perfectly bewildering array of other 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 205 

things of delight to the young creator. What an antici- 
pation and introduction to the study of technical 
science this would be! 

Superintendent Vansickle, in his work at North 
Denver, made very effective use of the printing press. 
The nicety of adjustments in the composing stick, the 
endless variety in the combinations of type and in pos- 
sible design, and, above all, the printing of a paper and 
the making of a book, make printing a constructive 
exercise of exceedingly great value. The Boys' Club at 
Holyoke, Mass., has found book-binding another most 
useful means of training. President Hall, in his article 
on A Country Farm a Quarter of a Century Ago, tells 
of seventy different trades and occupations, all exem- 
plified on the farm and entering into the education of 
the boy at that time. The McDonogh Farm School, al- 
ready referred to, near Baltimore, Md. ; the Abbots- 
holme in England; the farm school in Wales for the 
training of the sons of noblemen — all illustrate impor- 
tant adjuncts to our school, made possible under our 
plan of centralization on a general school farm. 

Then what an infinite range of possibilities there is 
in higher modelling. Proportionately as the school has 
entered this higher field, at Drexel, Felix Adler's, the 
Teacbers' College, the New Britain Normal School, and 
other places, the still higher adaptability and usefulness 
of these exercises for educational purposes have been 
apparent. The school has yet much to learn from an- 
cient Greece. As one stands in the Eookery at Cin- 
cinnati, or some other great pottery, and watches the 
marvellous transformations of the potter's clay in short 
time and in graceful forms under the manipulations of 



206 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

the moulder's fingers, the question can not help arising, 
Why does not the school utilize this wonderful exercise 
for the development of creative faculty? 

Now, this work in the kindergarten, in sloyd and 
manual training, in sewing and dressmaking, and in 
modelling must be essentially individual. Every exer- 
cise is filled with the utmost activity, the liveliest inter- 
est, and the most unlimited opportunity for each to arise 
to his best. To make it anything else than individual 
is to take the life out of all creative exercise. This, 
true in industrial education, is illustrative also of the 
same principle in regard to all other branches of school 
work. To arise to any great height, the soul must be 
free; and to be free it must be individual. 

Drawing. 

The drawing exercise, in all good schools, has been 
rapidly taking on an individual character. The method 
is largely that of the artist's studio. The pupils are 
either in groups, drawing the same things but from 
different points of view, or at work on entirely different 
things. The teacher passes from pupil to pupil, with 
here a glance, there a criticism or suggestion, but every- 
where direction. It is not necessary that all details 
should be outlined or inspected. Indeed, it is said that 
the great art teacher, Frye, never criticises or inspects 
the work of his students at all ; sufficient for them is the 
artist model. In our school the pupils, under sugges- 
tion, are led to do much themselves. 

In contrast with this, how painfully distressing is 
the school where the drawing is all imitation, and where 
little appeals to the child to inspire him to originate 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 207 

or to relate his work to personal pride ! The child must 
be given opportunity to create; and creation is always 
individual. 

The individual method in drawing, practised with 
such satisfactory results by many teachers, may be very 
suggestive with proper modification for the advantage 
of work in other departments. 

The work of Henry T. Bailey, State Supervisor of 
Drawing in Massachusetts schools, has stood, more than 
for any other one thing, for the conservation of indi- 
viduality in drawing. To him the field of the child's 
individuality is sacred, to be trodden on by no peda- 
gogue's foot. Hence his rescue of the schools from the 
domination of books and exercises which dictate and 
call for servile imitation. The child must see through 
his own eyes, must give form and colour as to him the 
vision is. Imagination also plays its important part, 
and everywhere there is freedom and creation. 

Penmanship. 

Sooner or later the handwriting must tell the story 
of individuality. Therefore, in the school, it should 
early conserve individuality. Fortunately, the enor- 
mous transformations in the systems of writing since 
the first presentation, by President Hall in 1892,* of 
vertical script in this country, to its wide and almost 
universal introduction in schools, has made this much 
easier of accomplishment. There are now no hair 
lines. The child may write large or small as he 
may please, only the letters must be fairly propor- 

* Proceedings of Department of Superintendents, 1892. 



208 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

lioned. Loss drill is now required to make a good 
writer; hence, the necessity for continiied drill being 
removed, the writing earlier takes on individuality. 

George Sand says: " The paper straight, the writ- 
ing straight, the boy straight." Vertical writing is 
more quickly k^arned, easier on the eye, less exacting in 
position, fairly rapid, and more easily read. 

But how shall we escape the necessity of drilling 
children in concerf? 

I once saw Prof. Chandler H. Peirce, in charge of 
the writing of five thousand children in the schools of 
Evansville, Ind., conduct school after school, of fifty 
or more pupils each, practically by the individual meth- 
od. " The work was conducted on a basis of ten lines 
for every effort, the teacher giving credit if done right, 
and assigning ten more lines if done wrong, with proper 
individual criticism offered." Continues Professor 
Peirce : " The difference between the poorest writer of 
the B class and the best writer of the A class 
is the work of two or three years. How is it possi- 
ble to give this wide range in capabilities any 
one thing which will satisfy and mark progress?" 
I saw Mr. Peirce, as he sat at the teacher's desk, 
in ten minutes receive fifty pupils, mark his criti- 
cisms, indicate his suggestions and assignments, and 
give inspiration to these little workers, who found 
in writing a most delightful exercise. As I watched 
him, it seemed to me this was the only natural 
thing to do. The day of " one, two, three,'' and of " left 
curve, left curve, right curve, straight line, rigid curve " 
in teaching writing is rapidly disappearing. 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 209 

Mathematics. 

The methods of the mathematical laboratory are 
very simple and natural. There is no assignment of 
lessons, the work being directed largely by suggestions 
given at the time the day's work is being done. On en- 
tering the laboratory (or the mathematical hour, if all 
work is done in a common room) the pupil then takes 
up the work of the day and begins where he left off 
yesterday. The teacher usually passes from desk to 
desk, encouraging, criticising, and suggesting at the 
direct point of personal need. Unembarrassed by the 
attention of others, the pupil discovers all his weakness 
to his teacher. Why should he not? Every point of 
the work is conducted solely for his benefit. Instead of 
preparing only a part of the work, or perhaps using help 
from others, sometimes imitating work on the black- 
board, the pupil performs all the exercises, not selected 
ones, and presents entire results in the same thorough 
and satisfactory manner. The work to him takes on 
reality; there is not the slightest incentive to dishon- 
esty; he has in hand an important piece of mathe- 
matical work; and the glow of conscious strength from 
personal performance, however limited, lifts him to a 
higher level of independence, vigor, and discovery. 

Given freedom and opportunity for active choice, 
the differences in working ability become so great that 
it becomes impossible to hold together workers so vital- 
ized by opportunity.* Either each subject must be pre- 

* See tables showing differentiation of working abilities, 
Chapters II and VII. 



210 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

seuted with ininimum opportunities, or tiic pupils 
must be given opportunity to scatter through the 
entire range of the subject. Tlieir performance of 
work is individual ; but no matter how widely scattered 
the workers may be in text performance, it always 
happens that there are enough pupils approximately 
together to give a group recitation at any time de- 
sired; only the group of to-day can not be the group of 
to-morrow. In like manner, there is always oppor- 
tunity for class discussion on elements of common 
interest; but why should it be necessary to have the 
steps leading to such a general exercise all identical or 
simultaneous? Usually the individual work in mathe- 
matics follows, in the main, a book-text; but some teach- 
ers, particularly in the lower grades, prepare card series 
of problems, adapted to a wider range of choice. With 
pupils trained to more responsible work, there is little 
keeping of records excepting by the pupil himself. The 
work does not encourage false returns. Sometimes a 
query box, into which pupils put calls for the class 
presentation of problems of special interest or difficulty, 
is advantageous. It will be seen that the work pos- 
sesses all the advantages of individual opportunity, 
group discussion and class explanation. 

An interesting example of this kind of exercises was 
observed in Mrs. A. R. Hornbrook's * classroom at Evans- 
ville, Ind. Here comes a class of thirty, say in mathe- 
matics, perhaps arithmetic. The lesson has not been 
assigned the day before. Each pupil is trained to make 
his own advance assignment within certain general 
directions. Half of the class are at their desks and at 

* See Mrs. Hornbrook's Laboratorv Methods in Mathematics. 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 211 

work on problems to be presented as opportunity arises, 
possibly to-morrow. The other half are at the black- 
board, each one putting on his several solutions or 
demonstrations for inspection or criticism. The 
teacher pauses here and there, quizzing, testing, and 
suggesting. Occasionally she calls on all who are inter- 
ested in Problem 29 to give attention to James's demon- 
stration, and immediately a little group gathers round 
this demonstration, which touches their individual 
interest. Sometimes a capable pupil is asked to explain 
to a single classmate; and sometimes one is appointed 
as critic. Often the statement is heard, " All those who 
are ready for explanation " of a given topic " will please 
give attention to the class direction "; but, singular to 
remark, not once did I see any attempt to embarrass a 
pupil by calling on him to recite on a section on which 
he was unprepared. Here were individual advance- 
ment, group interchange, and class direction — a trinity 
most devoutly to be wished. Every child was happy in 
his w^ork, each pursuing that which was individually 
best for him; all were loyal to the trust and opportunity 
given them, enthusiastic and ready, but without em- 
barrassment, to expose all weakness; while the teacher 
was as free from burden, she said, as she would have 
been entertaining friends in her own parlour. 

The beauty of individual work is that no two teach- 
ers conduct it alike. Sometimes the teacher proceeds 
very much as one would in a drawing lesson, passing 
from pupil to pupil, vitalizing each one by personal in- 
spiration, suggestion, and kindly criticism while sitting 
by the pupil's side, and occasionally illustrating some 
common principle by class explanation. 



212 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

Miss Laura E. Andrews's work in Pueblo, Colo., was 
very suggestive. Here the pupils worked in flexible 
groups, changing from day to day. The performance of 
work was entirely individual. Generally the teacher 
and pupil were sitting side by side, vtdth help just at 
the point of present need. Sometimes a group of those 
approximately working at the same place gathered 
around a table for mutual help. Sometimes the atten- 
tion of all was directed to certain basic principles of 
general interest, but the advancement was purely 
individual. 

Language. 

The language exercise must be related to the child's 
interest. Therefore, what a fruitful field is opened 
up by the Nature work already described ! What a child 
does not know about his pet plants and pet animals, 
the things he has reared and fed, is scarcely worth know- 
ing; and when he begins to tell with tongue or pen, 
how the story glows with life and warmth ! This gives 
soul to all language work and makes the telling easy. 
Just in proportion as it reaches such heights it is indi- 
vidual; and the converse is just as true. Language 
work should be little taught as a thing in itself; or 
it will blight all Nature work and every subject it 
touches. It must rather be the outburst of the super- 
abounding joy of other work. When the child is full 
of his subject the language work can not help being 
good. This is witnessed well in the budget of Christmas 
stories,* published by the school children of Ilolyoke, 



* Holyoke School Children's Christmas Annual, 1897. 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 213 

Mass. Here, strange to say, some of the finest stories 
came from the poorest and most illiterate children, par- 
ticularly those living in the tenement houses. Lan- 
guage work to these children became real. Their vivid 
imaginations, enkindled by suggestion and let loose, 
teemed with creations of surprising beauty. They 
tasted the pure joy of authorship, and in their delight- 
ful work found expression in language surprising to all 
who knew them. What a world of children's interests 
are available for other revelations in the same line ! 
How the imagination glows when given opportunity! 
And particularly is this the case with the child before 
he is checked by the tether of the school. Let the 
teacher beware of encroachment on the sacred domain 
of individuality by the formal written exercise; and 
particularly should we avoid over-criticism, which 
checks creation and causes the language exercise to 
lose its soul and lustre. 



Heading. 

This poverty-stricken primary exercise has no place 
in our play school. In the primary school it has been a 
dead exercise, because its premature introduction gives 
little play for activity. The child of eight years is ready 
for reading, and this makes its mastery short and easy. 
To the extent that reading, then or later, becomes a 
passive exercise, with many listlessly waiting, while oth- 
ers are away off in dreamland or wishing to be there, it 
becomes a questionable exorcise. For this reason, ex- 
cepting for certain purposes, the full class exercise is to 
be avoided. With departmental organization it would 



214 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

be a good thing if the pupils, as individuals or in small 
numbers, could pass in turn to an adjoining room for 
drill in reading at the hands of a specialist, with exer- 
cises much longer than the brief line which a child 
usually reads, the other pupils, in the meantime, being 
occupied with other work. If this is inconvenient, then 
the teacher may well gather the children around her 
in smaller groups, vitalizing the exercise by closer 
help and by the children's more fruitful attention. 
This group method is utilized with great profit in 
the schools of Stockton, Cal., Jamestown, N. Y., 
Youngstown and Hamilton, Ohio, and many other 
places. It is not equal to the departmental plan where 
pupils may retire for special drill; because the most 
difficult thing for a teacher to do is to give a class 
in reading any living attention and at the same time 
direct the occupation work of the remainder of the 
school. However, it is m.uch to be preferred to the 
general exercise which keeps a whole school or class 
passive while one pupil is reciting. The individual 
method, under the departmental teacher, is best; after 
this in value comes the group, to be succeeded by 
another group. 

But there are times when the whole school may 
profitably have a general exercise. Sometimes it may 
well be in select reading for a quick comprehension and 
interpretation of thought, followed by "books down" 
and the telling of what has been gleaned. Sometimes 
an especially fine selection should be studied or read 
in concert, but not too often. Then, again, an exceed- 
ingly good exercise is representative reading, where a 
pupil-reader entertains the whole school with something 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 215 

entirely new and interesting. There should also be 
much silent reading, which, in almost any form, is al- 
ways individual. 

Literature. 

The place to teach literature is in a library where 
pupils are turned loose to read under sympathetic guid- 
ance and capable suggestion. With an unlimited ac- 
cessibility of books why should children all study a 
given topic simultaneously? Undoubtedly a critical 
lecture or general suggestion may at times be given; 
but, in the main, pupils should be brought face to face 
with good books, in the atmosphere of the " Temple of 
Peace," as Gladstone was accustomed to call his library, 
and then be encouraged to read. A carefully prepared 
course of reading should be mapped out with consider- 
able range for individual selection. Each pupil might 
very profitably fill out a blank form, giving a digest of 
the book read, its author's style, the plot, most effective 
passages, most worthy quotations, etc. Children love 
beautiful things, and will read them by preference, if 
suggestion is made in a helpful and sympathetic way. 
There is no objection to the concert drill often used 
in storing the memory with beautiful gems of senti- 
ment. Indeed, it is a very profitable exercise ; but there 
should be a careful avoidance of all the dry rot in 
method that forgets that a child is a child and that even 
an adult tires of trying to conform personal interest to 
that of some one else. 

Concerning the applicability of the principle of indi- 
vidualism to the study of literature very little need be 
said; but much, it is hoped, will be suggested. With- 
16 



2i{j AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

out individual opportunity certainly nothing would ever 
have been written, and the suggestions for others to 
write must come largely in the same way. The func- 
tion of the school, then, is to furnish an abundance of 
material; suggested courses of reading of wide variety 
in fields; instructive lectures here and there on larger 
points of common interest or general usefulness; indi- 
vidual help in knowledge of how to handle keys, such 
as Poole's Index, and in acquaintance with the by-paths 
of literary activity; an abundance of opportunity for 
the pupil to make his own choice and of time to read; 
and liberal encouragement for himself to enter the 
original field of literary creation. 

I would also again particularly add the desirability 
of the child's making a digest of his reading as he pro- 
ceeds. The habits of literary men in authorship might 
be very profitably taught. Very few effective writers 
begin to write a book trusting to a gradual develop- 
ment of the theme as the work goes on. The most 
valuable writers are those who make notes on impor- 
tant points as they read. Each note is a finished pro- 
duction in itself, embodying either a quotation, a valu- 
able reference, or the development of some thought sug- 
gested by the reading. These completed fragments are 
filed in a scrap index. Then, when the time comes for 
the presentation of a book, the writer spreads out his 
associated notes on the floor, takes an inventory of 
what he has, arranges his sundry fragments in proper 
order, fills in the connections, and the result is a capable 
mosaic representing the best thoughts of the man's best 
hours. Why is it not a good thing for the pupil early 
to learn thus to give system and value to his read- 



ILLUSTRATIVE MEi'IlUDS. 217 

ings ? The digest of the completed book is a very ex- 
cellent thing for the younger child. No more delight- 
ful exercise in literary training can be found than 
that in which the child stands before his interested 
classmates and thus produces orally the digest of an 
entire book. 

It is particularly important that pupils should be 
trained how to use indexes and keys in the library. For 
this reason literature is best taught in a library. The 
customary rule to " avoid talking " is a pretty good 
thing for the teacher to read. 

Capable direction, accessibility of books, and time to 
read are essential functions. The excellent work of 
John Cotton Dana,* now of the Springfield (Mass.) 
Library, is very suggestive. Th^ literature work in the 
Dayton High School is also particularly good. 

History. 

Why should science be the only subject with capable 
equipment for its study? Our history is to be taught 
in its laboratory, equipped with reading and writing 
tables, historical library, maps, charts, globes, busts, 
pictures, relics, and porte-huniere. " The history of 
the world is the biography of great men" (Carlyle). 
Biography, then, should be the soul of history. When- 
ever a knowledge of the times is especially desirable, 
it should be gathered largely from collateral reading 
and the pictures of the novelists. 

Miss Mary E. Wilder, of the Gloucester (Mass.) 

* Dana's Library Primer. See also address before N. E. A., 
1898. 



218 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

High School, has published a little working manual, of 
seventy-four pages, on Laboratory Methods in English 
History which will be of great value to progressive 
teachers. In this she names 113 volumes that might con- 
stitute the working equipment of an historical labora- 
tory, added to which are suggested 33 other volumes for 
additional help. It is plain to see that these lists might 
be indefinitely enlarged; but to show the feasibility of 
the plan with even a small equipment, Miss Wilder 
names ten volumes as a minimum working equipment. 
For purpose of illustration let us take, say, as sub- 
ject. 

The English Conquest, 449 a. D.-1066 a. d. 

The student is advised to read continuously at least 
one of the following: 

Montgomery, 31-57 ; or Anderson, 28-69 ; or Towle, 
11-57. For extended information, say, in the study of 

Edv^'ard the Conpessor, 

the references are : 
Allen, 170. 
Armitage, 88. 
Bright, i, 21-24. 
Church, 320-323. 
Dickens, 43-49. 
Freeman, Short History of the Norman Conquest, 

24-25. 
Freeman, i, 354; ii, 3-11, 14, 18, 337-343. 
Freeman, Old English History, 252, 253, 258, 202, 

269, 270, 293, 290. 
Gardiner, i, 80-89. 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 219 

Green, English People, i, 103-lOG. 

Green, Short History, 68-70. 

Green, Conquest, 4G7, 4G8, 472, 473. 

Hume, 61-66. 

Jewett, 186-194. 

Knight, i, 163, 167, 176. 

Lappenburg, ii, 285, 291, 296, 300, 332. 

Lingard, i, 277-285, 303-306. 

Thierry, i, 124, 127. 

Yonge, i, 26-29. 

Miss Wilder says : " Note-books are necessary, and 
two are not too many — one for notes taken in class from 
the teacher or fellow pupils; the other for the student's 
own personal researches. . . . The pupil should be 
encouraged to consult two or more authorities on all 
topics, and to read continuously some history other 
than those used for reference; likewise to own at 
least one, the best he can afford. . . . Atlases should 
be in constant use, and progressive maps should be 
prepared by the pupil, subject to examination by the 
teacher from time to time. . . . Essays ■written on 
subjects connected with the study are helpful. This 
work may be varied by writing a review of some his- 
torical novel which has been read as a part of the pre- 
scribed course. . . . Historical novels, scrap-books for 
cuttings and pictures, the learning of spirited poems 
and ballads — all help to rouse the interest and enthu- 
siasm." It is plain to see that this table of references is 
serviceable for little or much according to the student's 
interest, time, and purpose. 

For wider illustration of the subject, a general 
knowledge of the times, and the clothing of characters 



220 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

with realit}', a generous list of collateral reading is sug- 
gested; for instance, in illustration of the 

Plantagenets : 

Doyle's White Company; Edgar's Great Men and 
Great Deeds (Crusades); Froissart's Chronicles; Gil- 
lat's John Standish; Henty's Brothers in Arms, For 
the Temple, In Freedom's Cause, and St. George of 
England; James's Forest Daj^s; Porter's Scottish 
Chiefs; Scott's Count Eobert of Paris (1090); Be- 
trothed (1187); Talisman (1193); Ivanhoe (119-4); 
Castle Dangerous (130G) ; Yonge's Prince and Page, 
The Constable's Tower; Shakespeare's King John, 
Edward III, Eichard II; Gray's The Band (1282); 
Scott's Lord of the Isles (1307) ; Halidon Hill (1333) ; 
Southey's Wat Tyler, Chevy Chase. 

It is evident that even the young student is here 
initiated into the interesting field of historical research 
and early feels the glow which belongs to the true his- 
torian. 

Geography. 

In the Teachers' College I one day saw a very beau- 
tiful lesson in geography. The topic was Scotland ; the 
method that of the story-teller. All the pupils had 
been encouraged to read in as wide as possible a man- 
ner; each vied with the others in the endeavour to have 
something of varied and particular interest to say. One 
pupil told of the geological formation and geographic 
position; another of its flora, the heath and heather. 
A third pupil, who had been to Scotland, ran an excur- 
sion to the mountains and pictured the beauty of the 
lochs and streams. Another told of Scotland's rela- 



ILLLTSTIIATIVE METHODS. 221 

tion to the British Empire; and then came a symposium 
of historic incidents and of the minstrelsy of the bor- 
der. One pupil recited a goodly section from the Lady 
of the Lake, telling of Roderick and Ellen and Doug- 
las and Malcolm Graeme. The stories of Bruce and 
Mary and Tam o' Shanter were not overlooked. The 
Cottar's Saturday Night also found recognition. Abun- 
dant pictures were at hand to illustrate many scenes in 
Scottish life; and the teacher had ditRculty in gaining 
opportunity to make a few remarks herself. If some one 
had only been present to sing Bonnie Sweet Bessie and 
another to play the bag-pipe, the translation to Scotland 
would have been almost complete. 

Why can not such an exercise as this be more uti- 
lized in the schools ? What in the ordinary formal grind 
of geography can compare with this in vivid interest? 
Do we not deaden geographic interest by our unrelated 
facts, our conformity to routine, and our uniformitiza- 
tion? These pupils carried from this lesson a vivid 
picture of Scotland and a spontaneous desire to have 
something valuable for to-morrow's symposium. The 
fact that the procedure utilized individual gleanings 
in perhaps widely different fields detracted nothing 
from the value of the class exercise. Here, in a 
single lesson, geology, botany, history, economics, po- 
etry,, literature, travel, and language painting, all 
united to give unity and life to the geography lesson. 
If we could make our geography real by relating it to 
life and to personal interest, we should find our long 
procedure in the development of geographic concept 
entirely unnecessary. Would utilization of the methods 
of the Travellers' Clubs smack too little of the school? 



222 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

French and German. 

Our course of study places French in the elementary 
or primary school; German, with French continued, in 
the intermediate school; but with instruction by the 
mother-tongue method. There is no objection to some 
anticipation even in the play school; indeed, it is to 
be encouraged. It will readily be seen that all language 
by the mother-tongue method, in the very nature of 
things, even in English, must be largely individual. 

Technical study and the use of books must charac- 
terize more and more the work in the high school. 
But here, with all the conversations and discoveries so 
much to be desired, there is no need of individual in- 
terest being blighted by uniformity. The fact is, there 
is no place where a person will learn a modern language 
so quickly as in the midst of surroundings where there 
is much to make thought vigorous, to keep interest 
lively, and to furnish higher ideals. Prof. Maro S. 
Brooks, at Holyoke, Mass., and Miss Alice G. Hurford, 
of Pueblo, Colo., in their high-school work, both reached 
rich results by a happy combination of individual study, 
group conversations, and class discussions. Their 
methods are capable of wide adaptability to the personnel 
of schools. 

The method of Prof. Edmond B. de Beaumont, of 
Lausanne, Switzerland, and president of the Associa- 
tion Internationale de Philologie Pratique, is exceed- 
ingly interesting and illustrative. Here is a man work- 
ing in eighty-two languages, many of which he speaks 
fluently. Professor Beaumont believes that language 
is a great ocean, into which flows an infinite diversity 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 223 

of streams. The language of each soul must be indi- 
vidual — must be its own. The address is so per- 
sonal, the words of the foreign and one's native 
tongues are intermingled so adroitly, the meaning of 
each new word is so transparent, and tongue and pen 
work so constantly and perfectly together, that the 
learner comes out from the lesson all afire with love 
for his new work, respect for the teacher, and with ear 
tingling and tongue ready to express words and phrases 
now a part of himself. Master and pupil talk in the 
new language from the very first moment. A hundred 
new words are given the first day, and almost as many 
every day. These are recorded, as they occur, in a 
vocabulary book, and phrases and sentences in a phrase- 
ology book ; both always in pencil. Almost immediately 
the learner begins in ink a book of his own natural 
style. He must write spontaneously and continuously, 
on any subject or without subject, words, phrases, sen- 
tences — anything; but he must write, write, write. Er- 
rors are expected, for. if one waited until he could write 
faultlessly, he would never write at all. If the right 
word in French or German does not come at once, a 
word from English, or any language, should be filled 
in — anything to keep writing. One page of this natu- 
ral style should be written each day. This, then, at 
convenient time, is to be submitted to the teacher or 
some competent person, who will underscore in red each 
complete sentence of good language ; the phrase, word, 
and letter errors in blue; while the sentences without 
errors, but yet not good phrase, are not marked at all. 
At some later time, not soon, the learner should try 
again the thought expressed in the sentences contain- 



224 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

ing errors. The words and phrases underscored in red 
are the pupil's own and these he must immediately be- 
gin to teach to some one — companion, child, servant, 
or stranger. 

At the same time the learner is encouraged to talk 
alone, to talk to himself, and continue to talk, sense or 
nonsense, but to talk in the closed room, in the street, 
on the ramble, or anywhere alone. Every available 
opportunity for conversation must be utilized ; but noth- 
ing can take the place of writing one's own natural style 
and of talking alone. Then, each day five red words are 
to be entered in a word index — only five ; never more — 
and with the utmost care, for each word is a pearl to 
be fondled, caressed, strung, and treasured. Five words 
each day will make 1,800 in a year. Each day also the 
recognised words of a single page in the dictionary are 
to be marked. These are blue words. The number of 
words so marked is indicated, with date, at the bottom of 
the page. The learner now meets three kinds of words — 
red words, or those made his own; blue words, recog- 
nised, but not perfectly at command in natural style; 
and C words, belonging to the great ocean to be studied ; 
and gradually the C words become B words and the B 
words A words. Now and then, at first frequently, 
later on perhaps once a year, the learner takes an in- 
ventory of his red words as found in his word index 
and of his blue words, already marked in his dictionary ; 
for these words are his precious wealth, his money to be 
counted and treasured as a miser would his gold. Each 
week a new verb is to be written out in full; and, I 
think I hear this successful linguist say, each year a 
new language should be undertaken. The grammar is 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 225 

used largel}^ as a reference book, the priiiei[)al thing 
being the learner's own natural style. As the study ad- 
vances, gem phrases from standard authors are to be 
gleaned and entered in a book; and thus the work glows 
and grows, so that tlie learner, talking from the very 
start, encouraged to go on regardless of errors, but 
to talk and write, write and talk, soon gains a mas- 
tery of words that is truly surprising. This is, in sub- 
stance, the method used in what Professor Beaumont 
facetiously calls his " Salvation Army for Modern Lan- 
guages." * The writer, in study of the method, spent 
two profitable months with this master of languages, 
and therefore knows something of the method's value. 
Its great characteristics are naturalness, system, sound 
pedagogy, enthusiasm, and results. With the method 
in hand, the learner, alone or in school, may fearlessly 
enter on the acquisition of any language. 

Latin and Greek. 

One of the pioneer individualists in public-school 
work was Miss Ida Brock Haslup, for six years prin- 
cipal of the central High School of Pueblo, Colo., in 
which she also taught much of the Latin and Greek. 
More than one hundred pupils in their Latin and Greek 
were under her teaching each day. At times of conveni- 
ence to their other departments of work, the pupils for 
their Latin work came to this room. Each one thus 
spent daily one hour by assignment, but the hour was 
used also for other studies, chosen by the pupils and 
apportioned the same amount of time. This appropri- 
ated four oiit of the five hours of the session, one of 

* Beaumont's New Method of Vocabularization. 



22G AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

the four hours being sjDent in the gymnasium or indus- 
trial shops. This left one free hour, which, in the cases 
of beginning pupils, was assigned; but in all other cases 
was left free for application, as the pupil saw best, at the 
place of interest or special need. The pupils thus were 
allowed much freedom in moving from room to room. 
There was no class study or recitation to be interrupted. 

The table showing the difference in the working 
abilities of twenty pupils working in Latin (see 
page 29) will indicate something of the difference of 
working places. There was no required preparation 
of lessons to be done at home. No groups of pupils 
could be seen around the entrance of the building in the 
morning, or on the way to the school, with one bright 
pupil reading over the lesson to two or three others. 
The books were in the Latin laboratory and the work 
did not begin until the pupil entered there. One study's 
time was not mortgaged by another. Each stood by 
itself, excepting as correlation was desirable. 

With this freedom in placing of time, there were 
no conflicts in programmes; a hundred students could 
prepare for one hundred different colleges, or demands 
of life, as well as for one. Certainly, this gathered into 
the room pupils of widely different advancements; but 
why not, in Latin or in Greek? The same class some- 
times had a large number of pupils scattered widely 
through Cfesar, and frequently there were present cer- 
tain ones in Cicero and Virgil, or in beginning Latin; 
but, in general, the class of to-day contained those of 
approximately the same sectional advancement. This 
is the natural consequence of community of interests. 

The teacher passed from pupil to pupil, sat in the 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 227 

same seat with him, and then and there directed his 
study, gave him personal suggestions, heard him recite, 
and otherwise tested the soundness of his work. This 
is the soul of teaching. Or sometimes the pupil came 
to the teacher's desk for special help. The marked 
thing was the approachableness and helpfulness of the 
teacher. Or frequently, as common diilficulties or needs 
appeared, a group of five or six, working approximately 
on the same ground, would be called around a con- 
ference table for general recitation. And sometimes 
things of basic interest would be presented to all in the 
room who might find attention profitable. At no time 
were several pupils passively waiting while another re- 
cited. The whole work was active, enjoyable, and full 
of personal victory, satisfaction, and inspiration. Dur- 
ing its progress the pupils were allowed the utmost 
liberty in taking care of themselves in the room. They 
could speak to each other, sit or stand, change seats 
at pleasure, go to reference library or conference table, 
call and conduct their own seminars, go to an adjoining 
room for more secluded study or companionable help, 
or otherwise look after themselves. The teacher was 
their honoured associate, educator, and friend. 

When the end of the hour came for general changes, 
or earlier if present work rendered it best, the pupils 
in leaving the laboratory left also their Latin or Greek 
work, until they might return the next day or later in 
the same day. There was no assignment of work by 
the teacher.* 

* An article by the writer, on Individual Teaching, in the Edu- 
cational Review, February, 1894, gives fuller description of Miss 
Ilaslup's work. 



228 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

" I would like to ask/' sa3's some earnest high-school 
principal, " concerning the quantity of work thus ac- 
complished by the pupils in Latin under this method 
and in the limited hours given to Latin study. Presi- 
dent Eliot says * that in the Cambridge Latin School 
(six years) 2,820 lessons are given to languages as com- 
pared with 1,070 lessons given to all other subjects; in 
the Ann Arbor High School (in seven courses taken to- 
gether) 2,746 lessons are given to languages as com- 
pared with 4,18-i lessons given to all other subjects; 
in the Lawrenceville school 2,033 lessons are given to 
languages as compared with 1,917 lessons given to all 
other subjects. Now, it is a well-recognised fact that 
the study requiring the most of the pupil's time has 
been Latin. It is this which usually works the pupil 
so many hours out of school. How in the world are 
you going to accomplish all the Latin study in your 
limited time? What is to become of our college prep- 
aration ? " 

The sufficient reply to all this is that it has been 
done. By reference to the table showing results in the 
study of Latin (see table entitled Difference in Work- 
ing Abilities as Shown in the Study of Latin, presented 
on page 29), it will be seen that the pupils represented in 
that class lost nothing by the method of their study. 
The heavy vertical line in the table at the end of Book 
I (54 chapters) represents the work which would have 
been accomplished by these pupils in the first half year 
of Ca?sar study, if in this school they had proceeded by 
their former class method. How much have these pu- 
pils lost? 

* Eliot's Wherein has Popular Education Failed ? 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 229 

L'Ecole des Roches, a new school founded somewhat 
on the general plan of the Abbotsholme and just opened 
in Paris, presents some very suggestive thoughts con- 
cerning the teaching of Latin and Greek. Says Demo- 
lins,* the founder of L'Ecole des Eoches: " The 
little child at three years of age vmderstands his mother 
tongue fairly well, and at four can speak it. This would 
be true no matter what his mother tongue might be — 
French, German, English, Latin, or Greek. But a pupil 
passes into our higher grades and spends several years 
in studying, say Latin; but at the end of that time he can 
not be said to know much of Latin; and he may go 
through college but yet can not speak it. What makes 
the difference in results? " asks Demolins; and then re- 
plies, " It is because in our higher education we do not 
use the mother-tongue method. Therefore," says Demo- 
lins, " we must return to the mother-tongue method." 

The plan by which this is done in the L'Ecole des 
Eoches is certainly worth very careful consideration. 
The beginning is not with grammar nor the study of 
forms. The pupil is given many books to read instead 
of a single text, no matter if he does not get much from 
each. His beginning texts have the Latin on one page 
and the translation on the other. From this the pupil 
is expected to get some impression of what the Latin 
page represents, very much as one reads a picture. He 
then covers the translation and tells what he can of 
the interpretation of the Latin page, be it little or 

* Demolins' Anglo-Saxon Superiority (French and English 
editions). Also T. R. Croswell's L'Ecole des Roches, in Pedagog- 
ical Seminary, December, 1900. Also Dr. Cecil Reddle's The 
Abbotsholme. 



230 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

much. Thus he reads book after book, gaining more 
and more from each as he proceeds, like any child in 
the study of Nature. His entire surroundings are 
Latin — the equipment of the room, the conversation, 
the illustrations, and the reproductions of Koman life. 
During this hour he hears nothing but Latin, frames 
his simple speech in Latin, and breathes the atmosphere 
of Latin. The walls of the room are covered with 
charts, carrying, in large letters, the declensions, con- 
jugations, and elementary vocabularies. As the pupil 
advances and knows not a word, he infers its mean- 
ing from the context or glances at the wall for his help. 
Instead of first placing his finger on the text-word, then 
turning back to the glossary to find his word, then 
back again to the context because he has forgotten the 
exact form of the word, then again to the vocabulary, 
and so on until the word is found, then back and forth 
once or twice more because there are several synonyms, 
and he needs to decide which one will fit — instead of 
all this circum-meandering, the student glances at 
his chart on the wall and immediately finds his help 
in elementary work. Then as the work progresses to 
another stage, he places before him on his working 
desk a triple-folder chart card, which surrounds his 
work with three printed pages carrying the more ad- 
vanced inflexions, vocabularies, and grammatical rules ; 
and from these, by quick reference, he gets his needed 
help. The plan is full of attempt at the mother-tongue 
method, of short-cuts, and of eni'ichment by bringing 
the child into a wealth of culture thoughts, in which 
we may find " ideals, of life and visions of beauty which 
can never grow old" (Hodge). Do we not make a 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 231 

mistake in our long-continued confinement of the 
child to the dry husks of grammatical forms and to 
the single text which, ever so fine, can not compare 
with the wealth of the contributions of many master 
minds. Many may think the method of Demolins, 
by which he says he has already taught his own chil- 
dren and others, as fanciful; but still the work contains 
much that is suggestive. The educational world will 
watch the results at L'Ecole des Eoches, and the ap- 
plication of the same methods elsewhere, with much 
interest. 

Music. 

Certainly music is a school exercise requiring far 
different procedure from any other subject. It needs 
abundant concert exercise and should have it; but it 
must rely on developed individual interest. To what- 
ever extent the general music exercise gives opportunity 
for interested, enjoyable, and individual activity, to 
that extent such general exercise has high utility; but 
the moment it bases its work on requirement and fails 
to give this interested activity to each and every pupil, 
just then and to that extent it fails to accomplish its 
mission as a legitimate school exercise. There are 
heights in musical training entirely within the province 
of the school which have never yet been reached by the 
school. It is altogether probable that musical compo- 
sition could be more easily taught than any other form 
of language expression, and the school should bring to 
every child the uplift which comes from general musi- 
cal training, but it should not limit its work to this. 
Wherever there are special endowments, here, as in 
17 



232 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

other departments, the school should give encourage- 
ment and opportunity. 

The centralization of schools, as contemplated in 
our plan, gives large opportunity for this work. It 
gives to the department the adequate equipment of mu- 
sical instruments, inspiring pictures, room of special 
focus, and air of proper temperature and freedom from 
impurities. It places the music work in the hands of 
the expert specialist and his well-selected assistants. 
Director Charles S. Cornell, in his Pueblo and Holyoke 
work, presented many suggestive things for considera- 
tion in this particular. Two hundred or more pupils, of 
fairly parallel grades, came to the music room at a single 
time. This gave the inspiration which comes from the 
blending of many voices in song. It also made it possi- 
ble to segregate out of this number those who needed 
special attention, who thus were 'able at the same hour 
to gather with great profit in another room, where 
one or more of the released teachers could help them. 
It was surprising how soon these children could be 
helped over the difficult places and returned to the 
general concert room. It gave opportunity for other 
occupation of some during voice changes and other crit- 
ical times. Musical societies and orchestras were or- 
ganized, musical libraries and festivals established, 
individual attention given, and much was done to 
encourage special interest. Artists of rare excellence 
were secured, chamber concerts were given, and many 
things done to bring the children in contact with the 
best in classic music and literature. As Dr. Hodge 
well says, " The fundamental human interest in musi- 
cal education lies in developing in the soul music which 
shall keep it white, make it unfit for ' treasons, strata- 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 233 

gems, and spoils/ and put songs from beginning to 
end in the heart." 

The plan of interpretative recitals in the Springfield 
(Mass.) High School, designed entirely for pupils indi- 
vidually interested, is also a very suggestive movement. 

The special musical instruction, which some pupils 
must take of tuition instructors, should be federated 
with the school work. The school should furnish place 
and hour and pass approval on such instruction. In 
this way much could be done to rescue the pupil from 
the iron clutch of a practice which, in its ignorance, 
too often spoils a child in order to make a very poor 
musician.* 

Business Practice. 

The past few years have brought a great change 
from the older uniform method of teaching book-keep- 
ing. Twenty years ago the high school of West Lib- 
erty, Ohio, conducted some most delightful exercises, 
wherein the individual student was the unit, but with 
all workers organized into an interrelated and depend- 
ent working business community. The same procedure 
has found expression in the leading business colleges, 
and from there has worked its way into high schools 
more or less everywhere. Typewriting is essentially in- 
dividual, and so also is stenography. 

* In the schools of Weimar, Germany, the writer found most 
excellent provision of this kind. In the Girls' High School were 
three rooms, one on each floor, containing pianos and other equip- 
ment for instruction in instrumental music. Here came outside 
instructors, under approval of the school. The school programme 
was protected, and the pupils lost little time, and had their music 
lessons and practice under pedagogic instruction. 



234 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

Domestic Science. 
Cooking and sewing, now much taught in schools, 
are so individual in their operations and progressions 
as to require no special comment. Indeed, industrial 
science, in its many departments, has contributed not 
a little to the better conduct of work in the other sub- 
jects of the school. 

Now, all these studies of the school have been illus- 
trated here, not to present details, which certainly must 
endlessly vary with the personnel of schools, but to 
show the applicability of individualism, with proper 
modifications and adaptations, to every department of 
school work. To be true to the interests of the indi- 
vidual, an exercise does not actually need to isolate 
the child. Any exercise — the single, the group, or the 
class — is essentially individual when it fits the personal 
needs of each and every pupil, and gives him constant 
opportunity for activity and unlimited progression. 

What is the place of hooks in such a scheme of edu- 
cation^ Are they to he discarded'? 

Yes, and no. As Emerson says, " Books are the 
best things well used; abused, among the worst." A 
book should never be permitted to obscure the vision of 
Nature. It has its place, but not in the early education 
of the child, and only its own place in the later stages 
of the work. A bookish man is an impractical man; 
he has never been in touch with life. It is quite prob- 
able that the school has too much run to books; and 
in the making of books much trash has been placed be- 
fore the children. Says John Burroughs, for instance, 
concerning Nature study, which is fairly representative 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 235 

of the rest: " Of the books upon Nature study that are 
now issuing from the press to meet this fancied want 
of the schools, very few of them, according to my way 
of thinking, are worth the paper they are written upon. 
They are dead, dead, and neither excite curiosity nor 
stimulate observation." 

On the other hand, " a good book is the precious 
life-blood of a master spirit, embalmed and treasured 
up on purpose to a life beyond life." Such books have 
their places in the school. The school should be full 
of them: not fifty copies of a single rehash, but fifty 
books and many more of as many difi^erent kinds. 
The methods here presented lead the pupil to entire 
things and direct him to master works of recognised 
authority. He is early introduced to the larger texts, 
and is taught to use them as far as they are to him 
serviceable. When he leaves school he realizes he has 
a mere introduction to the subject, that the vast fields 
and treasure houses are beyond him; but he has been 
given the keys to future research. As a rule, one of 
the most helpless men in the world is the college gradu- 
ate turned loose in a library to find something, he knows 
not where. On the other hand, the student who knows 
how to handle himself in quest of information when he 
wants it, is the educated man. 

Recognising the value of individual work as has 
been described, how does the time question work out? 
If you have forty pupils in a class, and only forty min- 
utes for the recitation, and the teacher takes one at 
a time, it is evident she can give each pupil only one 
minute of time. How can anything be done with that 
limited time? 



236 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

This is the old, old question that never arises in 
the experience of the individualistic teacher, but only 
from looking at things in the old, old way. In the 
first place, much can be done in even a minute of time 
properly utilized. Second, no teacher ever attempts 
isolation as implied. Third, it is not so much a ques- 
tion of the teacher's division of time as the pupil's. It 
is very apparent, if the period is forty minutes, as im- 
plied in the question, that each pupil gets the full forty 
minutes instead of wasting thirty-five passively waiting 
while the others are reciting. He gets all the time 
instead of only a part of it. Fourth, in addition to 
this the pupil gains time by all his preparation, recita- 
tion, and examination being merged largely into one 
laboratory exercise, so that the period may thus double, 
if necessary, the usual time he gets from the teacher. 
Fifth, the question arises also from a failure to compre- 
hend that the teacher who has been merely a hearer of 
lessons is now transformed into a director whose work 
is to inspire others, to touch the work at general points 
only, and to keep it on the right track. The work in 
discovery is done by the pupil. The fact is, there is "no 
teacher who has so much spare time for her own 
original work as the one who is thus surrounded by a 
score of busy workers whose operations she is merely 
directing. 

How about the number of pupils to the teacher? 
Will not this method demand that the numler should he 
less ? 

The number should be less by any method. It is 
probable the individualist teacher can handle as large 
numbers as the teacher of the class method ; only in the 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 237 

former case the vitalized activities make deficiencies 
apparent, while under the passive practices of the class 
method no account is usually taken of the time wasted 
in dormancy and dreaming. As President Eliot has 
well said, " The young woman who stands before fifty- 
six children attempting to give each one that which is 
best for his needs, is attempting what no mortal can 
do." Half that number is sufficient. Our school is 
planned for approximately twenty-four children to the 
teacher, varying with subjects. However, this is en- 
tirely a question of the teacher as a general. I have 
known teachers who could direct the individual opera- 
tions of a hundred children all at one time, and do it 
as well as other fair teachers might direct ten. 

How does this method affect the quantity and the 
quality of the work? If you shorten the time by cutting 
off outside preparation and by confining all endeavour 
to the laboratory, can so much be done? 

We must not fail to recognise the superability of 
the pupil who comes to his work with the endowment 
of better health. Such a pupil can accomplish more 
and better work in short time than his less favoured 
friend who mortgages his strength by abnormal hours 
of study and by worry over competitive results. It has 
been satisfactorily proven in the experience of hundreds 
of schools that the children who, under the stress of lim- 
ited accommodations, come for a half-day's session 
make their graded advancements as well as others, pro- 
viding theirs is the morning session. It is not quantity 
which educates, but healthy tension never protracted 
beyond the normal point. As far as quantity is con- 
cerned, the pupil who is given opportunity for vigorous 



238 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

advancement accomplishes far more. The individual 
school can work with less time element and yet short- 
circuit the usual curriculum. It is true there are a few 
pupils who apparently do not accomplish as much as 
the usual class would; but these pupils get well what 
they get, remain in school, and returning at the begin- 
ning of another year, take up the work just where they 
individually left it. There are no non-promotions and 
no dead repetitions of work. As to quality, each pupil 
does all his work, and not fragments assigned to him. 
There is, therefore, little opportunity for rotten work. 
Based on this higher quality of work is the opportunity 
for greater working quantity. 

What, then, is the test of advancement? 

Simply this — the evidence of faithful endeavour 
and the satisfactory completion of each piece of work 
before the pupil passes on to a succeeding piece. 

With all individuals travelling 'pretty much as they 
please, with minimum and extension courses of study, 
how can pupils ever he drought together again for entrance 
to any other school, or to any common classification 
whatever? 

That is purely a question of the superintendent — 
of the director-general; but the plan makes supervision 
scientific and interesting. Certainly it is much easier 
to run all trains by a fixed schedule; but with trains 
one year apart there is apt to be a good deal of time 
lost between times by many who would like to travel. 

The presentation so far has said very little about 
vacations. Would your schools remain open the entire 
year? 

No ; there are other things besides the school which 



ILLUSTRATIVE METHODS. 239 

belong to the life of the child. The first term should 
begin about the usual time in the fall and run fourteen 
weeks. A vacation of four weeks, beginning two weeks 
before Christmas, should then be given for enjoyment 
of the home, visiting, and holiday festivities. The sec- 
ond term, beginning two weeks after Christmas, 
should continue for twelve to fourteen weeks, to be 
followed by four weeks more of vacation. This vaca- 
tion should be variable in beginning, as proposed, but 
in time should comprehend Easter and the usual spring 
confirmations. It is the adolescent season of the year. 
Spring fever, with all it suggests, is a very plain phys- 
ical intimation that work should be lightened at this 
time of the year. The annual music festival, which 
every community should have, might well come during 
this vacation. The spring term should contain ten 
weeks, or only eight if the middle term has been pro- 
longed beyond twelve weeks. Then should come the 
summer vacation of eight weeks, with generous encour- 
agement for camping, life at the seashore or in the 
country, and for travel. During the summer months 
the school farm, in part at least, should be opened for 
the use of many children who can not leave the city, 
and who might find advantage in the more healthful 
occupations of the larger play and garden school.* 

* " The observations of Malling-Hansen on Danish children 
from nine to fifteen years of age show that by far the most rapid 
increase in stature was in the third of the year between the mid- 
dle of April and the middle of August, while the third of the year 
between the middle of August and the middle of December was 
the one in which they gained nine elevenths of their annual 
increases in weight." (Donaldson, p. 88.) 



CHAPTER X. 

APPLICABILITY TO DIFFERENT GEADES OF INSTRUCTION. 

The essential principles of scientific instruction are 
the same for all stages of education. Certainly there 
must be adaptation of methods for the best conserva- 
tion of these principles in different schools; but, never- 
theless, " the child is the father of the man," and the 
man is little more than the better-educated child. 
Choice, self-government, true motive, habits of enjoy- 
able industry, exercise of creative faculty, self-activity, 
opportunity for individual progress, the relation of 
work to life purpose, the pleasures of original discov- 
ery and unlimited variations — these are the essential 
elements in education, and their functions pertain just 
as much to the normal development of a child as of 
the man. 

The Kindergarten. 

The philosophy of Froebel is built fundamentally on 
the preciousness of individuality. Here in the kinder- 
garten may be seen individual freedom, initiative, op- 
portunity, and conservation, and their perfect com- 
patibility with sociologistic relations. Choice, sponta- 
neity, self-activity, and well-directed but unrestrained 
creation are fundamental factors in the kindergarten. 
In its operations the kindergarten reaches upward, over 
240 



DIFFERENT GRADES OF INSTRUCTION. 241 

a vast gap in the intervening school, and clasps hands 
with the university in effective conservation of the indi- 
vidual. Undoubtedly, the kindergarten must face the 
just demands for a more philosophic application of 
great essential principles, and must zealously repel the 
growing tendency to uniformitize its methods, and as 
well save itself from incompetence and misconception; 
but its work, even under unfavourable conditions, has 
been so far above that of the succeeding grades that 
it is deserving of great credit. Indeed, it has been sug- 
gestive to the whole field of elementary education. 

The Pkimary School. 

Pestalozzi taught that " the individuality of the 
child is sacred " and that " the child wishes nothing to 
intervene between N'ature and himself. . . . Man, it is 
within yourself, it is in the inner sense of your power, 
that resides Nature's instrument for your development." 
Here came the first great farm school, where books were 
excluded and the children brought face to face with 
Nature. " We ought to read nothing," said Pestalozzi; 
" we ought to discover everything." 

Superintendent W. F. Bliss,- of Colton, Cal., has 
been remarkably successful in the application of the 
principles of individualism to the primary grades, even 
in the work usually required in such schools. The cut- 
and-dried programme, usually posted on the door or 
wall, has no place in this school. The periods are longer 
than in most schools; but there is no danger of over- 
tension, because the school is filled with life and spon- 
taneity. There is a busy hum and bustle that reminds 
one of the beehive. The teacher is here and there, meet- 



242 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

ing each one at the point of his difficulty, grouping 
together several for a class presentation, giving a key 
to interest and recovery to some lost pupil, directing 
the active energies of a whole room of busy workers, 
but gaining much for herself from the children's dis- 
coveries. Other schools are grasping hopelessly at re- 
lief from the ennui arising from the programme, al- 
ready chopped into small fragments to bring relief by 
frequent change of exercises ; but here is a school which 
does not hesitate to spend the larger part of an entire 
session on a single exercise, if found desirable, with- 
out fear of overtension, because the work is largely 
related to play. Says Superintendent Bliss: " A men- 
tal wave, charged with a given subject, re-enforced 
by the activity on every side, was palpitating through 
the room. The psychological effect of this flow of con- 
centrated energy seems to be worthy of consideration.'* 
" What," exclaims Froebel, " if we could give the child 
that which is called education through his voluntary 
activities and have him always eager as he is at play! '* 
Well, why not do it? 

A regular instructor in the model department of the 
State Normal School at Los Angeles, Cal., where she had 
charge of the pupils of the second grade (approximately 
seven years of age), writes: " After an eleven weeks' test 
I stood amazed before the facts that confronted me. 
Among my brighter, more independent pupils the power 
developed, the solid healthy progress made in that time, 
was something that seemed impossible in the light of 
past experience. Children that I had previously kept 
down to ten or twelve words, were now learning from 
twenty to thirty words a day, and were building up for 



DIFFERENT GRADES OF INSTRUCTION. 243 

themselves, from outside sources, vocabularies that on 
an average reached fifty words, and often, in the cases 
of the brightest pupils, amounted to over a hundred. 
. . . But the feature that ennobles the work and gives 
it right to consideration over all other methods of 
teaching is its recognition of the slow pupil, its hold- 
ing of his rights as sacred as any other's. . . . With my 
own little slow ones I saw one after another, after a short 
time of quiet study apart with his teacher, begin to 
advance from the point where he had been master of 
his work. They did not go hesitatingly into the new 
lessons. Young as some of them were, they yet under- 
stood what they were working for. They grasped the 
reality of something definitely accomplished from day 
to day and gained confidence. Then, as I watched them 
push ahead under this new inspiration, a question 
forced itself upon me and would not be overlooked: 
What right have we, teachers or parents, to allow our 
children to begin their school life under the stigma of 
stupid or dullard until after every opportunity has 
been used to develop their best powers? But that de- 
velopment can only come when the child is taken at his 
own level, not an arbitrary line placed by twelve, fifteen, 
or twenty others representing a wide range of mental 
and physical capacities. It is a question of fair play." 

Intermediate School. 
Another teacher, in her work at Pueblo, Colo., 
and Pasadena, Cal., has attracted great attention by her 
successful application of individual conservation to the 
intermediate grades. There is apparently no attempt at 
government, and yet the best of government prevails. If 



244 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

to these children there is any happy place in the world, 
it is their school room. Here is association with a 
teacher whose heart is full of sunshine and warmth. 
Every pupil has opportunity to do all lie can do well, 
and is aglow with the spirit of his work. The teacher 
does not seem to be busy; but yet at the same time she 
has the knack of being just at the right place at the 
right time, of saying the word most helpful at any 
given point in the individual's work. There is no 
noisy instruction and there appears to be little teach- 
ing; but there is an immense amount of quiet, per- 
sistent work resulting from the energies of nearly three- 
score vitalized children being skilfully turned on ac- 
complishment which each one feels to be his own. 
There are no dead points in this school; but, on the 
other hand, the guiding hand is so gentle yet skilful 
that its presence is scarcely felt. This is high art in, 
teaching. 

The intermediate school, as has already been shown, 
is the place where the child should receive much drill 
in fundamental elements and processes, which are 
largely necessary to his capable work in subsequent 
schools. It is very possible that many things here, on 
which individual initiative and opportunity are not de- 
pendent, can best be presented in class exercises. If 
this is the case, the pupil should have just that kind of 
occasional drill, just as they should in any earlier or 
later subject of study; but the confinement of a child 
to class drill for a larger part of the time would be 
unfortunate indeed. 

]\Iany teachers prepare a large amount of occupa- 
tion work, involving an immense range of individual 



DIFFERENT GRADES OF INSTRUCTION. 945 

exercises. It is very interesting to note how skilfully 
this is done in a school in Worcester, and also how effec- 
tive the work is in directing the active energies of pupils 
of widely different capabilities. The typewriter and the 
mimeograph have an important role to play in the 
newer school. Indeed, the school of the future will also 
be something of a printing establishment. 

There is much in the school of Pestalozzi that ap- 
plies to other fields of elementary education; but per- 
haps reference to it may best be made here. 

Says VuUiemin, concerning Pestalozzi's work: " In- 
struction was addressed to the intelligence rather than 
to the memory. Attempt, said Pestalozzi to his col- 
leagues, to develop the child, and not to train him as 
one trains a dog. . . . Language was taught us by the 
aid of sense-perception; we learned to see correctly, and 
through this very process to form for ourselves a cor- 
rect idea of the relations of things. What we had con- 
ceived clearly we had no difficulty in expressing clearly. 
. . . The first elements of geography were taught us 
on the spot. . . . Then we reproduced in relief with 
clay the valley of which we had made a study. . . . 
We were made to invent geometry by having marked 
out for us the end to reach, and by being put on the 
route. The same course was followed in arithmetic; 
our computations were made in the head, and viva voce, 
without the aid of paper." 

The Grammar School. 
In the city of Los Angeles individual teaching, in- 
volving the work of fifteen thousand pupils, reached 
some exceedingly interesting results, although the work 



246 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

was in operation under abnormally unfavourable op- 
portunities for its direction, and was terminated ab- 
ruptly by a foreign decree which returned, at the end 
of fourteen weeks, all work to the class method. Among 
many other very successful teachers in the conduct of 
the work, I recall one whose work was highly competent, 
and who reached some surprisingly good results. In 
response to a questionnaire Miss Joy reported as follows 
(abbreviated) concerning the work of thirty eighth- 
grade pupils under her charge: 

" Pupil 1 — Completed the course in fourteen weeks, 
usually requiring twenty weeks. Did a great deal of 
supplementary work in history and mathematics. 
Gained much mental strength in this period. 

" Pupil 2 — While carrying on the other work very 
satisfactorily, made excellent progress in mathematics 
doing work usually requiring twenty-five weeks. 

" Pupil 3 — Came into class several weeks after term 
had commenced. Though handicapped, made special 
advancement, particularly in language and history. In 
language, covered well in ten weeks work ordinarily 
requiring eighteen weeks. 

" Pupils 4-9 — These six pupils made special ad- 
vancement in history, the system enabling them to carry 
on researches to a far greater extent than would have 
been possible otherwise. 

" Pupil 10 — Made special advancement in mathe- 
matics and history. Had the system been followed until 
the end of the term, he would have finished the course in 
five weeks less than time ordinarily taken. 

"Pupil 11 — Would have completed the term's work 
in four weeks less than the ordinary time. His work 



DIFFERENT GRADES OF INSTRUCTION. 247 

was more thoroughly done than would have been pos- 
sible in class work. 

''Pupils 12-28 — My entire B class (17 in number), 
with the exception of two pupils, did history work in 
six weeks that by the class method has always taken 
eight weeks. Their work was more satisfactory and 
their knowledge far more extended than would have 
been possible had the class plan been the only one 
followed. 

"Pupil 29 — Worked along faithfully and content- 
edly while the individual method was followed; but 
upon returning to the class method he soon became dis- 
couraged, in spite of my efforts to encourage him. He 
was slow in mathematics and language and sensitive 
to a great degree. He is older than his classmates, 
and I fear he will not return to school. The individual 
method is by all means the one for his kind. 

"Pupil 30 — Worked along much more ambitiously 
and eagerly after the inauguration of the individual 
work. He was slow, but I felt that every step forward 
was firmly taken. I felt much pleased with his prog- 
ress and mental awakening. Upon return to the class 
system he became discouraged, and, much to my regret, 
left school two weeks before the term closed. 

" Slow Pupils. — In answer to the special question 
as to what opportunities are oifered the so-called dul- 
lards, I have to say: In the course of a fourteen weeks' 
trial of the individual system of work and the return 
at the end of that time to class work, I have found 
that the individual system is the system best fitted for 
the dull pupils, who are in most cases very slow. A 
large part of their dulness is their very apparent in- 
18 



24S AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

ability to keep up with their brighter and quicker 
schoolmates. They are physically and mentally unable 
to assimilate the same amount of mental food. Class 
work becomes ' cramming ' to them, and this, as every 
one knows, is extremely harmful."' 

A school of fifty "eighth-grade pupils, so full of life, 
vim, and fun that the school-house could scarcely con- 
tain them, by a change of teachers after the year had 

started, came under the instruction of in 

Pueblo, Colo. Under his skilful direction, sitting the 
most of the time at his desk (in feeble health), the 
solid phalanx of fifty irrepressible spirits broke up 
into several working groups under the spirit of indi- 
vidual responsibility. These larger groups difPerenti- 
ated gradually into smaller ones, and soon the smaller 
groups into individuals, each working, progressing, and 
qualifying according to his individual ability. The exu- 
berant spirit, which before had bubbled over in count- 
less tricks and escapades, now spent itself in the doing 
of work which completely occupied every individual 
worker by opportunity of continuous advance at every 
step of the way. The instructor, coddling his pupils and 
adroitly used by them in' the doing of their work, had 
disappeared; while in his stead there came a school 
of intensely busy workers, each proud of his growing 
strengtli and conscious independent advancement. At 
first there was, with many, the feeling of helplessness 
that comes even to the older person when suddenly cut 
loose from the strong hand that has carried him; but, 
with all text advancement subordinated to the pre- 
requisite development of self-reliant, independent, per- 
sonal action, there soon came surprising results in indi- 



DIFFERENT GRADES OF INSTRUCTION. 24:9 

vidual and unaided power to do work, and the school 
became a self-operating body whose central unit was 
the individual working in harmony with his fellows. 

Then came sickness, which left the school without 
a teacher for the remaining eleven weeks of the school 
year — purposely without a teacher, for the superin- 
tendent wished to see the extent to which the new work 
could run itself. The school, without suggestion, ap- 
pointed a committee of three to look after all matters 
of general arrangement. There was perfect working 
harmony. The school, moving in line, was always 
promptly on time in its appointments at the shops, 
gymnasium, and the music and drawing exercises. 
Each individual closed up and completed his w^ork be- 
fore the end of the year, and without suggestion spent 
his superfluous time in perfecting his stiidies or on 
points of personal weakness. The note-books, records, 
and manuscripts were passed in in highly satisfactory 
condition, and attracted much attention at the annual 
exhibition at the end of the year; and the entire work 
was so well performed that a stranger in the building 
would scarcely have known the absence of the teacher. 
At the end of the year these pupils were all promoted 
to the high school, with no discovery in subsequent 
years to reflect on the quality of this work done with- 
out a teacher during eleven weeks of time. A large 
percentage of this class is in college at the present 
time. This matter of history is not presented to show 
the value of no teacher, but of pupils trained to self- 
reliant, independent, and inspired work. Scores of 
references could be made to similar work, but this one 
will be sufficiently illustrative. 



250 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

The High School. 

The Central High School * of Pueblo, Colo., under 
the skilful instruction of a corps of highly qualified 
associate workers, has attracted much attention to its 
methods during the past ten years. In 1893 all re- 
quired home study was discontinued; nevertheless, the 
school still prepared for life and for college as well as its 
competitors. The daily session was five and a half 
hours. The first half hour was given to music on three 
days, a lecture on Wednesday, and a pupils' concert on 
Friday. The remaining time was divided into five pe- 
riods one hour long. Every pupil spent one hour in 
the gymnasium, leaving four hours for three other 
studies, more or less, as the pupils chose to carry. It 
was expected that each pupil should place regularly 
one hour per day on each of his three studies. The 
extra hour, in the cases of beginning pupils, was as- 
signed to exercises of greatest need ; but to older pupils, 
trained to responsibility and the plan, it was a free 
hour to be spent on exercises of greatest interest or 
need. All the work, study, recitation, and examination 
was done in the respective laboratories, and, as far as 
requirement is concerned, within this specified time. 
There were, no doubt, home inventions and home read- 
ings suggested by and growing out of the school work, 
but no home work was required. At the beginning of 
each hour an electric bell made all general changes; 
but there was no limitation on trained pupils passing 
at any time from room to room as shorter or longer 

* Educational Review, February, 1894. 



DIFFERENT GRADES OF INSTRUCTION. 251 

exercises required. Each instructor had his own 
equipped laboratory, shop, or studio, and was there for 
the convenience of the pupils. As a rule, the working 
sections came in classes at specified times; but there 
was no reason why pupils, whosB^progress made this 
inconvenient, or who wished special or more extended 
help, work, or study, should not come at any time. Al- 
though the laboratory was filled with active work, the 
instructor always had time to be approachable. The 
greatest people in the world are the approachable ones. 
Indeed, they are great largely because they glean from 
an army of workers. Everything is grist which comes 
to their mill. 

In this school there was unlimited opportunity for 
individual advancement. There was no time require- 
ment; the pupil could complete the high-school course 
in his own time. He could take the usual number of 
studies, or more, or less, and, if necessary, only one. 
There was no advance assignment of lessons; but the 
work accomplished was far greater than that ordinarily 
done. The teacher was the child's helper, and the dis- 
coveries of the pupils added much to the happiness of the 
teachers. The school was a miniature community, self- 
governing, self-reliant, and happy, because its individ- 
ual members were also self-governing, self-reliant, and 
happy. 

The Oakland (Cal.) High School, under the prin- 
cipalship of J. B. McChesney, accomplished some 
equally excellent results in furnishing opportunity to 
the individual. The departments in science, literature, 
history, mathematics, modern languages, classical lan- 
guages, drawing, and physical culture contributed some 



252 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

A'ery valuable suggestions to the conduct of the work 
elsewhere. 

Concerning the work in the Los Angeles High 
School, Principal Gates said in his annual report: " The 
work under the individual system during the second 
semester was highly satisfactory. It was favoured by 
a large majority of the teachers and bitterly opposed 
by a small minority. But the twelve weeks that it 
was in operation proved to me all that is claimed by it. 
The time alone that it saves the pupil ought to place it 
far ahead of our present graded machine. Pupils reach 
our high school now at the average of sixteen. They 
ought to reach it at fourteen, and probably would if they 
only had the opportunity of doing all they are capable 
of doing." 

The Holyoke High School * presented a course of 
study which has been widely copied during the past 
few years. Principal Keyes has had no hesitation in say- 
ing that " if in the course of time five hundred pupils 
graduate from this institution, it will be possible for 
these five hundred students to come to their graduation 
through five hundred different courses of study." The 
equipment of this school will be highly suggestive to 
those interested in this phase of instruction. 

The principal of the Field High School, Leominster, 
Mass., has been one of the strongest exponents of indi- 
vidual training. He has contributed many articles of 
great value in lucid exposition of this phase of educa- 
tion. His work, formerly at Orange, Mass., but now at 
Leominster, will well repay a careful examination. An 

* The Ijarjjer Pligh School. School Review, April, 1900. 



DIFFERENT GRADES OF INSTRUCTION. 253 

illustration of the working of one of his classes is given 
in another discussion.* 

Very valuable work also has been done in the Girls' 
High School, Boston, and in the San Diego High 
School of California. Lewis Institute of Chicago is also 
organized fundamentally along the same lines. The re- 
markable growth of the Fitchburg (Mass.) High School 
had its explanation in the liberal individual opportunity 
therein granted pupils. 

• 
The City System. 

While much can be done, and is done in many places, 
along the lines described, by individual teachers here 
and there without respect to the work of their associate 
teachers, it stands to reason the plan can only reach 
high success where there is unity in plan throughout 
the entire system of schools. If the majority of teach- 
ers are securing work by requirement, the work of the 
teacher who makes no requirement is likely to suffer. 
It is not the fragment of the pupil that is to be trained 
to work from better motive and with better habits, but 
the whole individual. Then, again, laboratory work 
calls for a longer period to do its work. The entire aim 
in the work is different. The school wherein the indi- 
vidual is the unit sacrifices everything first to get inter- 
est, true motive, and correct habits of work, and in the 
early stages of its work ought not to be compared with 
other schools where present superficial results may ap- 
pear better. However, no city school system under pres- 
ent environments can be ideal; and such a system must 

* Pajre 168. 



254 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

be leavened by model work here and there in its 
parts. 

The individual work in the Pueblo Industrial Pub- 
lic Schools * has already been mentioned. While it 
stood probably first in time in an attempt to recon- 
struct a school system of any size, it perhaps need not, 
under the circumstances of personal connection there- 
with, be described in detail. It was an evolution, not 
a revolution, and found its way so gradually into opera- 
tion that the change at any one time was scarcely rec- 
ognised. Perhaps it may be of interest to mention that 
it was a development of a series of experiments, begin- 
ning in West Liberty, Ohio, 1877-'83, and Sidney, Ohio, 
1883-'88, and reaching its moderate efficiency in Pueb- 
lo, Colo., in 1888-'94, with very successful continuation 
later by the present superintendent and his progressive 
teachers. Davis H. Forsythe writes: " Individual- 
ism in education is the oldest of systems; but the city of 
Pueblo, so far as I know, has the distinguished credit 
of having first formulated a practical scheme applicable 
to a large school community. She is no longer alone; 
others have caught the inspiration, and the Pueblo sys- 
tem has been introduced into prominent schools both 
on the Atlantic and Pacific slopes." 

The city of Los Angeles, Cal., published several 
manuals f in 1895, which may be suggestive in studying 
the history of the work in the schools of that city. 

The schools of North Denver, C5lo., while under the 

* Working Directions. Pueblo Tnrliistrial Pnblic Schools, 
Pueblo, Colo.. 1893. Also, Educational Review, February. 1894. 

t Manuals One, Two, Three, and Four. Los Angeles Schools, 
1895. 



DIFFERENT GRADES OF INSTRUCTION. 255 

development of Superintendent J. H. Van Sickle, were 
a most excellent exposition of systematic organization 
for effective individual training. The characteristics of 
Superintendent Van Sickle's plan may be said to be — 
individual responsibility; semi-annual class promotions, 
attended with individual extensions; a minimum of re- 
quirement with a maximum of opportunity; opportunity 
for a pupil to take whatever number of studies is best 
for him individually, and to place most time on exercises 
of greatest personal need; additional time for study in 
the school; greater interest in school work, and less 
losses to the school. The high-school graduations are 
held semi-annually. Of the 101 pupils graduated under 
this plan up to the date of Superintendent Van Sickle's 
report * no two pursued identically the same course of 
study. 

The Friends' School of Germantown, Pa., by vote 
of the Society, following the report of an inspector sent 
to visit the schools of Pueblo in 1894, made individual 
teaching the adopted form of work. Says the prin- 
cipal: "I believe individualism in elementary school 
work, with all that goes with it, will save much time in 
the school life of an ordinary child, will graduate him 
earlier and in better health, with an intellect that has 
gained in power, because it has grown to know what 
it is to possess power." 

The schools of Worcester, Mass. (Superintendent 
Clarence F. Carroll), have a very flexible grouping sys- 
tem, by which the pupils are promoted more easily from 
grade to grade. In each room there are several groups, 

* Proceedings of Department of Superintendents, 1898. 



256 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

usually from four to six in number, and these groups 
are subject to change from day to day. Also, the group 
to which any one child belongs may be very different 
for the several studies. The result of this convenient 
adjustment is that the children of the schools of 
Worcester do not often fail to do the work but reach the 
higher grades earlier and in larger numbers than is the 
case in almost any other large city in America. 

The same plan is in operation in the schools of 
Stockton, Cal.; in Youngstown, Ohio; Jamestown, 
N. Y.; and Hamilton, Ohio; and, with some modifica- 
tions but many excellent and characteristic features, 
in the schools of Elizabeth, N. J. 

The Cambridge plan has some very attractive fea- 
tures. The course of study is so built and the promo- 
tions so made that pupils may complete the grammar- 
school course in the usual four years, or they may do 
the work in either three or five years. The work is con- 
ducted largely by the class method. 

Thirty years ago Superintendent William T. Harris, 
now Commissioner of Education, organized his schools 
in St. Louis so that the class intervals would be 
by the quarter year and half year, and not the full 
year as in schools ordinarily. This was found to effect 
a great accommodation in getting pupils into classes 
according to their different abilities, and was the best 
thing in that day in the grading of city schools. Better 
than this is Superintendent Van Sickle's plan of mini- 
mum requirement and extension opportunities under 
the same teacher. Still better is the laboratory plan, 
which permits continuous individual progress under the 
same tcauliers for several consecutive years of time. 



DIFFERENT GRADES OF INSTRUCTION. 257 

In what way do the short-interval method and the 
grouping method differ from the plan presented, and 
in what way also is the latter different from the old 
ungraded-school method f Would you have us return 
to the ungraded school? 

The short-interval method, and very frequently the 
grouping method, while far superior to the more usual 
class method with promotions at the end of the year, 
have their decided limitations in that they change the 
teacher too frequently. It is desirable that children 
should remain longer with the teacher rather than for 
shorter time; hence, the strong argument for depart- 
mental work. Unless the greatest caution is exercised, 
the splitting of the grades into smaller sections, which 
are still grades, only tends to the finer development of 
the school machine, which is certainly a result to be 
carefully avoided. Very frequently a single half grade 
placed in a school expands itself into a full-year grade. 
President Eliot says: " Of late years many experiments 
have been made in semi-annual promotions and other 
means of hurrying forward the brighter children. The 
aim of these experiments is laudable, but statistics sug- 
gest a doubt whether semi-annual promotions really 
promote and whether they do not disturb to an inex- 
pedient degree the orderly progress of the school work." 

Again, the characteristic feature of the individual 
plan is its laboratory nature. The teacher is not the 
hearer of lessons, but the associate, the inspirer of the 
children, and their director in the performance of work. 
There are many other essential differences. In the 
country school the method of work was a good thing 
as far as it went; but it lacked the superior teacher. 



258 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

the better equii^ment and facilities for laboratory effort. 
The old New England Academy, which was another 
form of the ungraded school, was an institution of high 
merit and only disappeared because the graded school 
was a free institution, supported by so much available 
money as to dwarf its less successful competitor. 

The Village School. 

The methods which have been presented would apply 
not only to the work of the larger high schools, but also 
admirably to that of the smaller or village high school. 
In the village high school all the work must be done 
by one or two teachers. The classes ordinarily are 
many, some being very large and others quite small. 
Sometimes there are only three or four pupils in a cer- 
tain class. The individual method has much to offer 
here. The day can still be divided into longer de- 
partment periods, with all the work of several classes 
conducted approximately simultaneously. By this plan 
it is possible to apportion the school time to working 
groups of very nearly the same size, thus giving the 
pupils, who would otherwise be in very small classes 
to be heard at unfavourable times, approximately the 
same time as others. The smaller high schools and 
academies have always had more individual instruction, 
and consequently they have sent proportionately more 
candidates to the college. 

This same possibility of equalization of numbers 
applies also to the smaller school system, or to the 
smaller district building, where ordinarily the lower 
grades or classes are very large but the higher classes 
very small. With the individual, and not the class, the 



DIFFERENT GRADES OF INSTRUCTION. 259 

unit in instruction, grade intervals disappear, and the 
burden of work to the teachers and the opportunities 
to the pupils may be more equitably distributed. 

The Eural School. 
The ungraded schools have always had much indi- 
vidual opportunity. The teacher has been unable to 
help the pupils very much, and hence the pupils have 
learned to help themselves. Each pupil has advanced 
pretty much as fast as he could, so that the country boys 
coming to the city school must, to the chagrin of the 
city superintendent, usually be placed in higher classes 
than the city pupils of the same age who have been so 
comfortably coddled under the graded system. Then, 
there has been much advantage to the younger pupils 
in the higher views they have caught incidentally from 
the instruction of the older pupils. If the country 
school had had the same money to put in the teacher 
and the equipment it would have shown still better re- 
turns. The greatest difficulty in the rural school lies, 
not in the wide differentiation of pupils, but in the frag- 
mentary division of the programme. Ordinarily the 
teacher becomes more of a train despatcher than a 
hearer of lessons. Great economy would result if this 
school would divide up its time largely into laboratory 
hours and have all work of a given character in opera- 
tion at that time. This would give the desirable 
" psychological wave," mentioned by Superintendent 
Bliss. The teacher would not then be giving one-tenth 
of her energy to the reciting pupils, and nine-tenths to 
maintaining order. She would be in the midst of active 
workers, fired by a common impulse and working most of 



260 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

the time through a period of favourable quiet. General 
explanations here and there, of interest to all grades of 
workers, would lift the younger pupils far more than 
might be thought.* 

The Evening School. 

How about the evening-school instruction'? Has it 
not been more largely individual'? 

Undoubtedly it has been more individual. It is 
very possible much of my own convictions in regard to 
individual training has been suggested by a large ex- 
perience with several thousand students in evening- 
school instruction. It has been to me a noticeable fact 
that an evening school is very apt to go to pieces when 
taught by teachers trained for graded-school work; and 
that, as a rule, the most successful evening-school 
teachers are those who have touched the graded ma- 
chine very little. These older students, coming for op- 
portunity only, will not waste time in educational work 
that does not fit them. On the other hand, the children 
in the day school, forced to attend by compulsory con- 
trol, can not escape ; but there is every reason to be- 
lieve the differentiation of working ability is just as 
pronounced. 

The Normal School. 
If these principles are at all applicable to the work 
of the graded school, they must be taught and prac- 

* The writer for two years taught an ungraded school of one 
hundred and ten pupils of all sizes, ages, and advancements, with- 
out assistance and in a single room, and therefore knows some- 
thing of this subject. 



DIFFERENT GRADES OF INSTRUCTION. 2G1 

tised by the normal schools. Many normal schools are 
already doing this. In Col. F. W. Parker's magnifi- 
cent new school, the Chicago Institute, as his announce- 
ment says, " the individual is the unit." The same 
thing is true of the Teachers' College in New York. 

In the Idaho State Normal under President Geo. E. 
Knepper there is no classification of students until 
they reach the graduating year. Each student is en- 
tered where he can get the most to himself, and pur- 
sues his work in a community of workers, all busy in 
that which is best for each individually. There is no 
class feeling and no unnatural rivalry; but there is a 
unity of purpose and a loyalty to the school perhaps 
surpassed by no other normal school of the country. 

In a large way the same principle has been well 
exemplified in the policy of Colonel Parker, who has 
been wont to say, " Every school, no matter how un- 
graded it may be, is always capable of being divided into 
Wo great classes — those who must be helped, and those 
who can help themselves." Indeed, this rule is almost 
suffiicient for the classification of any body of workers. 
The Colorado State Normal School has been a strong 
promoter of the doctrine that the school must be for the 
individual. The principal of the State Normal School, 
at Worcester, Mass., and the principal of the State Nor- 
mal School at Westfield, Mass., have introduced many 
happy expedients for the better culture of individuality. 

A new teacher, once coming to the Worcester Nor- 
mal School, inquired very anxiously concerning the 
course of study, and for directions as to what she should 
do with the children. " Oh, do what you find to be the 
best," replied Principal Eussell. " But what shall I 



262 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

give the children to do ? " anxiously inquired the 
teacher. " Oh, give them anything; the chances are you 
will give them too much." Says Principal Russell, 
" When a child wishes to stand up or to sit down, either 
is his privilege. If he wants to leave the room, that is 
none of the teacher's affairs." Even the furniture in 
the rooms in this normal school is of sufficient variety 
to guarantee to the child very much his own choice of 
position; and it can be inferred that the adaptation in 
the work of the school is equally felicitous. 

The College. 
It is probable that there is no one stage of modern 
instruction where the spirit of reform makes such slow 
progress as in the college. In almost every college the 
students in recitation still face the light, from which the 
instructor gets almost sole benefit. The best working 
period, the very heart of the day, is entirely consumed 
by the dead recitation exercise. This period is, to a 
large extent, worse than wasted. The student sits pas- 
sively on a hard seat for four long and usually tedious 
hours, either doing nothing or listlessly trying to go 
through the lifeless recitation; and the result is often 
a twisted spine from the long-continued habit of sup- 
porting the body upon the writing arm. This time 
is full of potentiality for effective work by the more 
active method. In most colleges the reciting classes 
are so large that the circuit of the class can not be 
made more than once per day, and frequently not so 
often. Consequently, after being called on once, the 
student has pretty good reason to believe that he need 
not pay very good attention during the rest of the 



DIFFERENT GRADES OF INSTRUCTION. 263 

recitation; or, if called on to recite to-day, the tempta- 
tion is strong to run, without preparation, the risk of be- 
ing called upon to-morrow. Why do not the college 
people realize this waste of precious time; that it is 
active study that makes the student, and not passive 
waiting through long hours of unfruitful torture, 
wherein the premium is liberal for dishonesty and defec- 
tive work? It is strange that the more active method of 
the university above, and the growing tendency in the 
same direction from beloAv, do not rapidly bridge this 
chasm in scientific education. The college has much to 
learn from the better methods of the lower-grade school. 

Says the president of Moore's Hill College, Indiana: 
" We do not claim the individual plan will level all the 
mountains, nor make all the crooked places straight. 
We do believe, however, that if this personal work were 
commenced in the primary departments, carried through 
the grades and into the colleges, it would revolutionize 
our public-school system, put new life and vigour into 
our colleges, and inspire thousands of young people, who 
now drop out of the ranks, to go on and complete the 
work." 

A college professor who once introduced individual 
teaching and opportunity into his classes reported that 
he was compelled to go back to the class method because 
the students accomplished so much more work under 
the new plan that he could not find time to hear them 
recite. Poor man ! When would he learn that the de- 
tailed recitation is a non-essential, and that the most he 
can give the enterprising student is association and in- 
spiring direction with helpful criticism at points of 
fundamental importance? 
19 



264 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

The University. 

Thomas Jefferson was the father of the elective sys- 
tem in America. His ideal university, crystallized later 
in the founding of the University of Virginia, called for 
an abolition of the prescribed curriculum for all stu- 
dents, and consequently for the overthrow of the class 
system; the introduction of specialization; the uncon- 
trolled choice of studies and lectures upon the part of 
the student; and the reduction of requirement and dis- 
cipline to a minimum. 

Originally the University of Virginia consisted of 
eight separate schools, afterward increased to nineteen. 
Of these, a student entered three. If studying for a 
titled degree, he was required to take a group of schools 
answering to the nature of the degree sought; if not, he 
elected any combination he wished. Each school deter- 
mined its own graduation; and each offered the degree 
termed " Graduate." That is, a diploma read, " A 
graduate of the University of Virginia in Latin " (or 
other subject); but such degrees were not titled degrees. 
No specified training was required for admission, but the 
student was expected to do the work. There was no 
time limit, and no annual promotion from class to class. 
The work of the student embraced two elements — asso- 
ciate work, performed largely in the class ; and much 
extra personal work. In each department a certain 
ultimate minimum was required for all; but the time 
of accomplishment was purely individual. As the stu- 
dent proceeded he was granted his separate graduate 
degrees. When accredited with the requisite number 
of graduate degrees, his titled degree was declared. 



DIFFERENT GRADES OF INSTRUCTION. 265 

There was no marking system. Eesponsibility belonged 
to the student. Every one was accredited a gentleman; 
when he gave evidence that he was not, he was retired. 
Such was the beginning of the elective system in the 
universities and schools of x4.merica. 

President Eliot, in his great work at Harvard Uni- 
versity, has given the best of his life to the development 
of the elective system and to its adaptation to the essen- 
tial aims of the university, the college, and the second- 
ary and elementary schools. At Harvard the individ- 
ual student finds almost any study or combination of 
studies sanctioned by the needs of modern life. It is 
said that it would take a single individual between 
seventy and eighty years to go through the courses now 
offered at Harvard College, without counting the more 
ndvanced courses. The work is essentially laboratory. 
The student has choice of studies, great individual 
attention, personal association with strong men, and 
capable leadership. 

Says President Eliot, in a magnificent article on 
Liberty in Education: * " A university of liberal arts 
and sciences must give the student three things : 

" 1. Freedom in choice of studies. 

" 2. Opportunity to win academic distinction in sin- 
gle studies or special lines of study. 

" 3. A discipline which distinctly imposes on each 
individual the responsibility of forming his own habits 
and guiding his own conduct." 

The distinguished success of Harvard University 
and its great moulding influence on other institutions, 

* Eliot's Educational Reform, p. 125. 



266 ^N IDEAL SCHOOL. 

university, college, secondary and elementary, are 
monumental evidences of the intrinsic worth of Presi- 
dent Eliot's life doctrine. 

Ten years ago, on the great Stanford estate, was 
opened the Leland Stanford Junior University, a monu- 
ment built by Leland Stanford and Jane Lathroj) Stan- 
ford, to the memory of their son Leland, who is said to 
have conceived the idea of the university. The keynote 
of the entire university is well sounded in President 
Jordan's fundamental doctrine of Opportunity to the 
Common Man. Any person of honest desire for higher 
training will here find the university's doors open to 
him. He is freely entered, but he must establish his 
right to remain. Personal association and sympathetic 
direction are cardinal principles in the university's 
policy. Even the president plays ball on the campus; 
and, in the laboratories, professors and students work 
hand in hand. There is probably no institution of 
higher learning in America, governed with so little 
red-tape; and yet there is probably none other where 
the feeling of personal loyalty and responsibility is so 
great. The sun shines brightly on the Stanford Quad- 
rangle. 

Says Earl Barnes of the work at Stanford: * " Sub- 
jects are not grouped in classes and no courses of study 
are laid out. Throughout the period of four years the 
work is elective, and students select the work best fitted 
to their individual needs. There is but one restriction 
on the freedom of choice : each student must devote 
one hour a day for the four years to some one line of 

* Educational Review, vol. vi, p. 360. 



DIFFERENT GRADES OF INSTRUCTION. 267 

work. Thus each student has one major subject, and 
one-third of his time or more for the four years is given 
to that subject. The professor in charge of a student's 
major subject is supposed to be a guide, counsellor, and 
friend to the student; and his advice as to the best 
lines of study to pursue has a large influence with the 
student. .^. . Students who are at least twenty years 
old may be received without formal examination as 
special students, if prepared to do the work they wish 
to take up. They are not candidates for degrees, but 
have all the advantages for study offered by the nni- 
versity." 

The University of Chicago also aims at the conserva- 
tion of the interests of the individual. In exposition of 
this ideal President Harper has said: * 

" First of all, and, if I mistake not, most fundamental 
of all, is the principle of individualism — a principle ca- 
pable of application alike to students, instructors, and 
institutions. Every man born into the world comes 
into it with the limitations of his work clearly defined 
by Nature. The man who succeeds in life is simply the 
man who is fortunate enough to discover the thing 
Xature intended him to do. In some eases Nature has 
seen fit to indicate early and definitely the line of work 
in which success may be attained. In others the dis- 
covery is made, if at all, late in life. In the growth 
and development of the body and mind each man or 
woman is to be treated as if he or she were the one 
person in existence. The individual, not the mass, is 
to be cared for. From the beginning the student should 

* Address at Atlanta Educational Congress on Some Phases of 
State and Non-State Higher Education. 



268 ^N IDEAL SCHOOL. 

receive such treatment as will enable those who are 
watching his development to learn what he can do only 
with difficulty. But this is not to be limited to the be- 
ginning ; it should be continued to the very end of what 
would be called the preliminary period, a period which 
in the case of every individual continues until the clear- 
est evidence has been secured of the discovery of the 
principal work which the individual can do to advan- 
tage. When once the discovery has been made, with 
certain qualifications, the pupil should be allowed to 
devote himself uninterruptedly to that for which, as 
experiment has shown, Nature fitted him. The next 
aim will be to develop those functions which are ca- 
pable of development. It will not be forgotten that 
the culture should be as broad as possible; but it is 
true that the possible fields of mental culture are very 
numerous and that, after all, no man, however broadly 
cultivated, comes into contact with many of these fields. 
It must be admitted that a large part of our educa- 
tional work fails utterly of accomplishing the thing in 
view. Men pass through all the grades of primary and 
secondary work, enter college and do university work, 
and yet are reckoned by the world at large, and even 
by those most intimately associated with them, as fail- 
ures. And so far as adding anything to the life of 
themselves or others, they are failures. Why is this so ? 
Because the idea has prevailed so extensively that men 
might be educated en masse; that one after another 
they might be ground through the curriculum of study 
without reference to special tastes and predilections. 
A class of a hundred men enters college, no two of them 
alike in equipment, natural taste, mental aptitude, or 



DIFFERENT GRADES OF INSTRUCTION. 269 

intellectual ability, and yet they have been required to 
take the same studies, within the same number of hours, 
in the same way and with a sameness throughout that 
makes college life for the most of them a distasteful 
thing and an injury. I stand ready to assume the re- 
sponsibility for the statement that many men are in- 
jured by college training, and that the cause of the 
injury in nine cases out of ten has been the inflexible 
cast-iron routine of the college curriculum, which, let 
us congratulate ourselves, is fast becoming a thing of 
the past. Less harm has been done than would other- 
wise have been the case because, as a matter of fact, 
only those men of a certain disposition in days past 
have received an education. A great change is taking 
place among us to-day. Men of different types of mind, 
men who have no idea of becoming scholars, men who 
will be artists, mechanics, business men, as well as those 
who have in mind the ministry or ,the law, may receive 
an education adapted to their needs and capabilities. 
That the doctrine of individualism is beginning to be 
respected is evident from the establishment of scientific 
schools, technological schools, and from the high posi- 
tion which these schools now occupy side by side with 
the college, a position to which they could not lay claim 
even so short a time as ten years ago. But the same 
sin, for it is a sin against God as against man, is still 
committed in most of our institutions, even in those 
to which reference has just been made. The individual 
is forgotten in the mass. In how many colleges is it 
the custom to take, as it were, a diagnosis of the mental 
constitution of each student similar to that which the 
physician takes of the body? It is not unusual in 



2'rO AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

these days in connection with the work of the depart- 
ment of physical culture to have each man examined, 
the weak points of his body pointed out and the prin- 
cipal exercises indicated which will help him. Is such 
a thing done for the mental constitution ? The college 
methods of the past have compelled men to fail, and 
in many cases it is more or less accidental that a man 
has received real and genuine help in his development. 
Why is it that so many men achieve marked success in 
life, in their profession, and in every line of business, 
who have never seen the inside of college halls? Be- 
cause contact with men does for them what technical 
education is supposed to do for those who avail them- 
selves of its advantages. The feeling against higher 
education which has existed is not without some justi- 
fication. A radical change is demanded; a cbange 
which shall shake to the foundations the educational 
structures that have been erected." 

But the highest type of university in America is 
found in Clark University. Here the work is devoted 
entirely to higher research ; there are no college depart- 
ments. The work is purely post-graduate. The stu- 
dent comes with some original line of research which he 
wishes to develop. For three years he devotes himself 
to this single purpose. In the prosecution of his work 
he commands for his help the president, the professors, 
the university's equipment, and the great library. 
There is no definite dividing line between the professors 
and the student, but the most intimate association. 
The professors rely on the discoveries of the students, 
while the latter find in the former their most helpful 
friends. There are no requirements, but everything is 



DIFFERENT GRADES OF INSTRUCTION. 271 

open. The student commands the resources of the uni- 
versity as much as do the professors. Each one has 
his own place to work, and is his own librarian and 
demonstrator. The great laboratories are his own. As 
his work progresses he has the advantage of whatever 
criticism he wishes to summon. On Monday evenings 
the students gather at the president's home for seminar 
presentation and discussion, at which time and place 
each in turn presents, for the criticism and discussion 
of his fellows, his discoveries and the development of 
his work to that particular stage. Here is association, 
inspiration, initiative, and unlimited opportunity. The 
work at Clark University is absolutely individual. 

The Unity of Sciextific Instruction. 

From this discussion of the subject it should now 
be evident that the principles of individual training- 
apply, with proper adaptation and adjustment, to every 
grade and stage of educational work. 

They perhaps can not be applied in the same ways 
to all stages and departments of work, but still their 
fundamental bearing is essentially the same. There 
are not only the varying characteristics of pupils that 
must be conserved, but also the individualities of 
grades, of subjects, of communities, of equipment, and 
of instructors. The work calls for great versatility, for 
endless adaptation, and for profoundest study; but its 
cultural products will respond proportionately. 

President Eliot has well summed up the whole argu- 
ment in saying,* " It is hard to say at what stage of 

* Eliot's Unity of Educational Reform. Educational Review, 
October, 1894 



2Y2 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

education, from the jDiimary grade to the final univer- 
sity grade, the individualization of instruction is most 
important. The truth is that the principle applies with 
equal force all along the line. For the university presi- 
dent, the school superintendent, and the kindergartner 
alike, it should be the steady aim and central principle 
of educational policy; and whoever understands the 
l)rinciple and its applications in one grade understands 
them for all." 



CHAPTER XI. 

THE child's opportunity TRACED THROUGH THE 
SCHOOL. 

The child has an inalienable right * to be a child; 
to be understood and appreciated; to joyous play, free- 
dom in movements, adequate sleep, nourishing food, 
companionable pets and, within certain limits, self- 
chosen friends; to an acquaintance with Nature; to 
capable leadership; and to opportunity for initiative 
and unrestricted progress. 

Happy is the child who spends his infant years in 
the loving, helpful companionship of parents who live 
for their children. Says Henry Ward Beecher, " The 
mother's heart is the child's school-room; " Shake- 
speare, " To you your father should be as a god " ; For- 
bush, " At the best the God of one's childhood is only 
a great man, and it is a solemnizing fact that he often 
bears the face and nature of the child's own earthly 
father " ; Coleridge, " A mother is the holiest thing 
alive " ; Kate Douglas Wiggin, " Her life may be a 
cipher, but when the child comes, God writes a figure 
before it and gives it value." Happy is the child in such 

* Kate Douglas Wiggin's Chilclren's Rights; also, Charles W. 
Warner's Being a Boy ; A. F. Chamberlain's The Child. 

273 



274 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

a home, a substitute for which the school can never 
be; and thrice happy he who, all through the growing- 
days from infancy to manhood, has the loving presence 
and association of those who see in what they may do 
for their children the completeness of a well-rounded 
life — the best hope of immortality. 

To the child and the man the school-room door 
should be always open. The requirement that any given 
stage in education must be entered on a given day, or 
at a given time, is unnatural and unnecessary. Every 
day should be a beginning day, and never in the life of 
a child should such an abnormal thing as non-promo- 
tion appear. 

Tlie basis of gradation must be the placing of the 
child where he can get the greatest good to himself — 
where he can he the happiest. If the child is of over- 
age, he should never be degraded by being classified 
with children much smaller, but should be placed more 
nearly with those of the same age and general physical 
condition, where, by individual attention from the 
teacher and his own absorption of higher influences 
around him, he will be lifted more rapidly to his proper 
place. 

If the child from necessity enters school late, or 
if he must be absent a day or a week, a month or a 
term, his loss should never be disproportionate. He 
has a right to expect that the school shall fit his in- 
dividual needs, associate him with those who can help 
him most, and permit him to advance as naturally as 
grow the trees of the forest. There should be no time 
element. He should be permitted to accomplish as he 
may be individually capable. 



THE CHILD'S OPPORTUNITY. 275 

His motives must arise from the recognition that 
every heart contains a spark of divinity; from opportu- 
nity to place his life in harmony with beauty and law; 
from personal choice of the right over the wrong, and 
to do work because of its innate worth and contribution 
to the happiness of others. The child must have the 
exercise of free will; but he is also entitled to sugges- 
tion and protection. Not the result but the endeavour 
deserves commendation ; for as Euskin says, " It is the 
effort that deserves praise, not the success. Nor is 
it a question for any student whether he is cleverer 
than others or duller, but whether he has done the test 
he could u'ith the i/ifts he had.'' It is customary to begin 
the day in most schools with a morning prayer. It 
would be equally appropriate to close the day with a 
benediction — at least with the benedicting approval of 
the teacher, expressed not in per cents or other discrim- 
inating degrees, but in warm-hearted and sunshiny en- 
couragement to each and every child. If he can not be 
reached by siich motives, either the child or the teacher 
is a defective, and a consultation of experts is in order. 

With such opportunity for placement and with such 
actuating motive the child takes up the work of the 
school. Let us now trace his career through the school. 

In the Play School the child finds his opportunity 
for rapid growth, for drinking in from and looking at 
Mature, and for freedom in movements. The grouping 
of children is entirely according to that which interests 
them most. In contact with the forest, with the school 
gardens, with pets fostered by his care, with limpid 
stream, playing fountain, changing hillside, and the 
stars of night, the child finds in Nature his principal 



276 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

subject-matter. By imitation and inspired expression 
he learns much of his mother language; and there is 
no objection to natural acquaintance with a foreign 
tongue. To him the story-teller opens up a wealth of 
myth-lore, which is the spirit of a world of facts ex- 
pressed in fruitful form. Santa Claus is a living real- 
ity, for it personifies the heights and depths and 
breadths of altruism. Without Santa Claus the child 
is poverty-stricken and denied one of the largest and 
noblest conceptions of life and of truth. In the same 
way, other myths are pregnant with beauty, history, 
personification, comprehensiveness, and reality. The 
child learns much from pictures and expresses him- 
self in language, in drawing and song as linguistic exer- 
cises, and in constructive building. His play is largely 
imitation and representation, but free and spontaneous. 
He has the guidance and association of his teacher, who 
within certain limits supplies him with abundant mate- 
rial for expression and, under suggestion, keeps the 
work in orderly sequence. His movements are natural 
and the furniture is varied. The child studies things. 
There are no technical drills; but if the child spon- 
taneously and by his own effort comes to an interpre- 
tation of mystic and mechanical forms, there is no ob- 
jection. The fact is he will do so anyway, in an ele- 
mentary manner, to a large degree. Then comes th(.' 
fruitful time for alphabetic training. Its recognition 
is the basis of transition to the succeeding school. In 
all his work he gets little or much as his individual 
interests may demand. 

In the Elementary or AlphaheUc School, as budding 
faculties mSy manifest themselves, the child gets his 



THE CHILD'S OPPORTUNITY. 277 

acquaintance with the fundamental alphabets of learn- 
ing and with the working tools on which his subsequent 
work is largely dependent. Up through the recogni- 
tion of the beauty of harmony he is placing himself 
more and more under control, but under circumstances 
of great freedom. In Nature study he is learning the 
delights of contributing to the world's wealth through 
his own growing of the best trees, vegetables, and 
flowers ; in the domestication of animals, ordinarily 
wild, and in contemplation of Nature in her own 
fields. He begins to read, and is given certain phono- 
grams which enable him to be immediately at home in 
the recognition of new words. He is also given consid- 
erable opportunity for interpretative entertainment be- 
fore the entire school. He still draws as a language 
exercise, because he can tell so much more in drawing 
than in any other way ; but writing, as his own exercise 
and as a convenient approximation of print, now be- 
comes his means of more definite record. His oral lan- 
guage, by added experience, takes on its fuller expres- 
sion; and as the result of comprehensive concept, he 
tells all he can in written communication. By the 
mother-tongue method he rapidly advances in versatile 
expression in French, introduced some time during this 
period, preferably early. Historical narrative now tells 
much of the lives of great men; and choice myth, for 
culture of the imagination, still holds its place. Geo- 
metric forms and the fundamental combinations and 
operations of numbers are well taught. The tables are 
largely presented by ready-reference charts, by the 
building of tables, by extended applications, and, as the 
child gets ready for the short-cut, by storage of the 



278 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

memory with intelligent forms. Construction enters 
largely into the realm of toys and playthings and takes 
its key from individual interest. Literary gems and 
music are taught through attractive concert exercises; 
and play is free and spontaneous, but under encourage- 
ment and with association. The period is one of grow- 
ing technical drill and the acquiring of skill. The chil- 
dren are associated in flexible, helpful groups, but with 
no limit to healthful advancement and intelligent 
choice. To a limited extent there are class or group 
exercises in technical drill, but the predominating char- 
acteristic is one of helpful quiet. Inspirational and 
information talks and class exchanges on subjects of 
general value are always in order; but there is little 
of the formal recitation. There is also no mechanical 
comparison of results. Each child is protected in doing 
that which is his best. The programme is flexible ; what 
can not be well done to-day is left until to-morrow. 
The moment an exercise fails in interest it is an un- 
profitable exercise and is thrown aside for a new ap- 
proach at another time. The major work of the pupil 
in this school is under a single teacher; but in several 
subjects the work is departmental. The child meets 
experts only. 

The Intermediate or All-Bound ScJiool adapts itself 
to the pupil in his period of fullest childhood. In it 
is obtained a general survey of the related fields fun- 
damentally tributary to specialized work. The child 
has realized his place in a harmonious working com- 
munity and is given still greater opportunity for gen- 
eral helpfulness. He has his individual interest more 
actively employed in his study of Nature, in the taming 



THE CHILD'S OPPORTUNITY. 279 

of wild animals, in competitive culture of best products, 
and in prevention of pests; but he also becomes an 
integral part of humane organizations for the protec- 
tion of birds, frogs, toads, and parks, for the honouring 
of the sanctity of the home, for the growing of bird 
foods, and for systematic destruction of the larvae and 
eggs of mosquitoes, beetles, caterpillars, moths, grubs, 
scales, and other injurious life. He gains an elementary 
knowledge of the geography of the world and the means 
of finding details when he wants them. His language 
work acquaints him with polite and business forms, re- 
cords his discoveries, and clothes his imaginative crea- 
tions. French is continued sufficiently to hold his pre- 
vious acquisitions and skill with moderate advancement, 
but German is now added; both by the mother-tongue 
method. History is rejjresented by leading facts and 
characters, with wide opportunity for ramifications and 
collateral study. Both history and geography have their 
hour of class interchange, with every encouragement to 
contributions from a wide variety of sources. Drawing 
is still a means of expression as each child individually 
sees, and is much used in illustration. It also plays an 
important part in inventive design, and is closely re- 
lated to the pupil's constructive exercises. These latter 
begin to take on more and more the character of scien- 
tific apparatus, mechanical toys, and useful construc- 
tion ; sometimes individual, and sometimes co-operative 
with distribution of labor. The useful industries in 
modelling, farming, carpentry, sewing, cooking, and de- 
signing follow interest and choice. Under direction, the 
child reads good books of native interest, records his 
generalizations in digest forms, writes literature of his 
20 



280 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

own creation, of which he becomes author, printer, illus- 
trator, and binder. He also grounds himself more and 
more in the fundamental arithmetical processes and 
gains a knowledge of the principles of geometry, but 
in both of these studies does little or much according 
to leading interest. In music he has his part in the 
general exercise, is given time for outside training, and 
is encouraged to his own individual creation. He plays 
usually with the entire school, the teacher also taking 
part; and with his set. For gymnastics he has place 
in general drills of bright character, but in special cases 
is assigned corrective exercises and given special care. 
The child also learns to swim. 

The several studies are grouped around four or five 
general units. The work is departmental, with sec- 
tional responsibility. The programme, as far as the 
departmental correlations permit, is flexible. No one 
day completes the whole cycle of work; no two days 
in programme are necessarily alike ; but a week of work 
represents a fairly equitable apportionment of time. 
The technical work is all done in the respective labora- 
tories. There is no required home study; but there is 
much spontaneous home work naturally growing out 
of the school exercises. 

On account of the garden work, longer play, bath 
opportunity, gymnasium, and shop exercises, the hours 
are longer; but the time is full of intermissions. The 
work is planned so that an individual child may take all 
the work, in the doing of which he may take his own 
time; or he may omit much work not fitting his condi- 
tion or bent. IMuch of the work in Nature study, read- 
ing, language, writing, literary creation, invention, con- 



THE CHILD'S OPPORTUNITY. 281 

struction, mathematics, music, and gymnastics is indi- 
vidual; but in Nature study, construction publication, 
music, play, and gymnastics he has co-operation; and in 
geography, history, current events, etc., he has his semi- 
nar. There is no objection to Latin, if taught as a live 
language, in lieu of the modern languages; but with in- 
ability to do both, the modern languages are preferable. 

If at the age of approximately fourteen in boys and 
thirteen with girls, because life energies are centred 
in absorbing physical changes, there comes a special 
need of school relaxation, then at this age, without post- 
ponement, or whenever it does come, the school should 
exempt the child from work of special demand, permit 
irregularity in hours, and favor a year, should cir- 
cumstances so require, of entire freedom from the 
school. The intermissions in the programme, the ab- 
sence of unnatural incentive, and the building of all 
work on the play instinct, in themselves are essential 
safeguards. But beyond this the school should be built 
so as to permit much absence without work to be made 
up in a given time, and with opportunity for much 
work to be omitted. The home and the school should 
be faithful protectors during this time. Relaxation or 
diversion of the child from insistent work should be 
guaranteed, but should be unconscious as far as possible. 

Our pupil is now in the High School. He has a gen- 
eral survey of the geography of the world, loves Nature 
and good books, expresses himself well in English, can 
understand and speak French and German, has had 
his ambition stirred by historical biography, his fancy 
by myth and legend, and his patriotism by the story 
of his country, can perform the ordinary arithmetical 



282 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

calculations of business life, can design and create, en- 
joys music and art, knows good from evil in his physical 
life, enters heartily into play, knows how to handle 
himself and to contribute to the happiness of others, 
sleeps well, eats well, and is in good health. The na- 
tion has a right to expect such a product from the lower- 
grade school. 

The work is departmental. The student has his 
own choice of studies and combinations of studies, ex- 
cepting that English is always a major. In his choice 
he has the wise counsel and suggestion of his teacher 
and friend. There are no class divisions, because there 
is no time element; and pupils are bridging the cus- 
tomary intervals in every conceivable manner. The 
school works by a general programme of hourly periods, 
subject to individual modifications, and with always 
one or more free periods for special application. The 
teacher, books, departmental library, apparatus, and 
material are in the departmental laborator}'^, where the 
teacher is always approachable. The workers usually 
enter in class form, determined largely by the general 
programme, and are busy on some study or investiga- 
tion of common interest; but there is nothing to pre- 
vent individuals of other advancement coming at the 
same time, for there is no general recitation to disturb 
or by which to be disturbed. The teacher is leader, 
associate worker, and helper. There is little detective 
recitation; occasionally the lecture; often the seminar; 
always the individual exercise. In science the pupil is 
testing, trying, discovering, tabulating, generalizing; in 
Latin, or perchance Greek, if Greek be in the high 
school, he is individually progressing and qualifying; in 



THE CHILD'S OPPORTUNITY. 283 

French and German he reads as fast as may be best, but 
has his colloquial and interpretative exercises on points 
of common interest; in grammar, either Latin or Eng- 
lish, much can be done by the class method, but not all; 
in literature and history the pupil masters what he can, 
writes his own digest and criticisms, and enjoys all the 
more the lecture interpretation; mathematics lends it- 
self unlimitedly to his individual accomplishment; de- 
sign, creation, and composition are conservative of his 
individuality; music and art are profitable only as they 
are rich in personal interest, which is the perfect key 
to the interpretative recital or lecture and organization 
into orchestras, musical societies, and art clubs; and 
gymnastics certainly at this period must be individual, 
with correlation of play for team and federated work. 
All promotions are daily. The basis is the single piece 
of work, individually and satisfactorily done. This 
piece of work becomes an integral part in a solid ma- 
sonry. There are no skips in the work made by absence 
or vacations; no non-promotions nor lifeless reviews. 
When the student returns another day, another term, 
or another year, his work that far is well done. It con- 
tains no omitted or defective parts. He begins just 
where he left off. 

The student is not interrupted in his continuous 
work by irrelevant recitations. His work in note-book 
or verbal translation or explanation is subject at any 
moment to criticism. There is no reason why he should 
disguise his ignorance. The incentive to dishonesty is 
wanting. Given association, suggestion, friendly criti- 
cism, and opportunity, he will do more work and better 
work. 



284 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

The student is capacitated by better health, better 
training, and better motive. He feels the glow of per- 
sonal mastery, creation and discovery, realizes his re- 
sponsibility, is happy because the work fits him, and is 
strong because the work which he accomplishes is ab- 
solutely his own. Opportunity for choice strengthens 
his character ; for individual promotion saves him time ; 
for free relaxation insures his health; and for interest 
relates his work to definite purpose. Why should not 
such a unit make the better society than when its sev- 
eral parts have had the steps of their reasoning all 
mapped out by their teacher, have been crammed with 
information with little opportunity for discovery, 
ponied and coddled through different places by parents 
and classmates, actuated for a reward and not for 
truth itself, and incapacitated by home study which 
is desultory and ineffective at best? Is it any wonder 
that students seldom find time for attendance on an 
evening lecture, study much of the Sabbath day, are 
perfectly at sea in a library, and graduate from the high 
school in defective health, without purpose or adjust- 
ment to life? There is no comparison between the re- 
sults of the two schools. 

The high-school period is the period for the acquire- 
ment of greater skill in manipulation, and for the ex- 
ercise of the several faculties to make them strong, 
self-reliant, and self-directive. For this reason the 
term Gymnasium is far better than that of High 
School, for the former expresses the function perfectly. 
It is also a period for new ambitions, the expenditure 
of active energy, for special conservation, and for strong 
convictions and debate. The individual conservation 



THE CHILD'S OPPORTUNITY. 285 

of work lends itself effectively to community govern- 
ment, to contribution, debate and co-operation. 

Our discussion has now reached the College, but 
there is little new to be added. Every subject of the col- 
lege and the university has been anticipated in the pri- 
mary school. The same fundamental principles are car- 
ried forward, excepting, perhaps, the college capacitates 
all the more for altruistic endeavour; and the university, 
by the very nature of its province, tends a little more 
to isolation. There is still the same cardinal factor 
of association with higher personality, the same oppor- 
tunity for research, patient study, culture, and discov- 
ery; the same rewards that make investigation worth 
pursuing, truth worth possessing, and life worth living. 
This, however, must be added, that under the tremen- 
dous leverage of this line of work, all along from the 
kindergarten upward, the college and university will be 
lifted into a realm of- possibilities little comprehended 
in the enforced policies of present-day conditions. 

" Do you know," remarks some faithful teacher, " that 
you are making teaching a very difficult vocation f " 

I certainly am not trying to make it easy. The 
best things in life are really the most difficult things 
to get. But on the other hand, these principles ought 
to make teaching easy. To the teacher, thoroughly 
qualified and prepared to direct, the work will really 
become more enjoyable, more dependent on general 
preparation and less on detailed preparation, and by 
utilizing the discoveries of the children, more enriching 
to the teacher personally. 

How about the hours the older pupils will he in the 
school^ Would these hours he more or less? 



286 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

Preferably they would be more, but the programme 
would now be less exacting. All the school work, 
excepting certain spontaneous work, would now be done 
in the school. The school laboratories would be opened 
a greater number of hours, but all pupils would not 
necessarily be there all the time. 

Would not this procedure ivorJc the teachers harder 
than they are now worked? 

Not necessarily. The laboratories being open longer 
hours does not mean that every teacher should be there 
all the time. With the departmental rooms properly 
grouped they would be under capable supervision with- 
out a teacher constantly in every room. Pupils natu- 
rally would seek the room when the teacher was there. 
Even if they should come in small numbers for indi- 
vidual work, pupils trained in this way to habits of 
research and self-respect are perfectly safe, in nearly all 
rooms, for their own guidance during the hour of the 
teacher's absence. 

How woidd the teacher find time to individually con- 
duct all the worTc of so many different worhers? 

If the teacher insists on conducting the work by 
doing herself all the work of the pupils, and by hearing 
recitations on all details, she will not have time; but 
if she arises to the nobler mission of directing the self- 
activities of many workers, with here and there the 
guidance of an artist's hand, she will have abundant 
time. 

What is the lasis of classification of pupils under 
this plan? 

There are no fixed and arbitrary classifications of 
pupils. The aim is to place a child where he can be 



THE CHILD'S OPPORTUNITY. 287 

the happiest — that is, where he can get the most good 
to himself, and in turn make the greatest contribution 
to others. In a broad general wa}' it may be said that 
the child passes from the play school to the alphabetic 
school at a time when the brain has approximately 
reached its maximum growth, and energy is now being 
centred more in the development of the smaller brain 
areas. By the end of the period devoted to the alpha- 
betic or elementary school he has gained considerable 
co-ordination of the finer muscles; and he has a good 
working knowledge of the fundamental processes in 
reading, writing, numbers, and other tool acquisitions. 
He can gather thought and working data from the 
printed page, can write a good hand, express himself 
in drawing and langiuige, perform elementary problems 
in the five fundamental processes, can make simple toys 
for himself and others, and is keen in observation. 
With this ability to command himself, he passes into 
the intermediate school, where his studies now become 
more comprehensive and involve a general survey of 
the common fields. Transition to the high school or 
gymnasium is marked by the interests which charac- 
terize the early adolescent period. Within any one 
school, the grouping is broad, flexible, ethical, and 
natural. As a rule, the ethical placement of a child 
is where he can be the happiest. 

Are the results described possible where a school is 
only partly organized for individual worJc — say in only 
one or two departments? 

Not to the high degree desirable. There must be 
the longer periods for laboratory w^ork. There must 
be unity of spirit and purpose. There must be no op- 



288 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

portunity for one department to encroach on another. 
Without these essential conditions the work may find 
some happy realization, but not to its full fruition. 

What are the best factors in the education of a 
child so trained? 

The ability to command self; the development of 
!N"ature's endowment ; the discovery of interest ; the de- 
lights of search after truth and of personal creation; 
the linking of work to life purpose; and the realization 
of personal contribution to the summum bonuni of 
human happiness and human enrichment. 

" Self-reverence, self-knowledge, self-control ; these 
three alone lead men to sovereign power. Yet not for 
power; power of itself would come uncalled for. But 
to live by law, acting the law we live by without fear; 
and because right is right, to follow right — were wisdom 
in spite of consequence." 



CHAPTER XII. 

THE FUNCTION OF THE TEACHEE. 

" God inouldeth some for a schoolmaster's life." (Thomas 
Fuller.) 

The greatest thing a teacher ever brings to a child 
is not subject-matter, but the uplift which comes from 
heart contact with a great personality. This should be 
the first prerequisite in determining the acceptability 
of a teacher. An old Greek adage reads, " Give your 
child to a slave, and instead of one slave you will then 
have two." It certainly is true that as each adult 
thinks back over his own school career he ever recog- 
nises, as the thing which helped him most, the impulse 
which came from some sunshiny and capable teacher. 

President Charles F. Thwing once made a very 
interesting study of the responses of fifty representative 
men to questions involving " The best thing college does 
for a man." * The entire drift of the testimony was 
that the most these men got from the college was in- 
spiration from life contact with great leaders. The 
subject-matter of the college received a very small per- 
centage of credit. Among other good things presented 
in this study, President Jordan says, " The best thing 

* Forum, March, 1896. 

289 



290 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

a college, as a rule, does for a young man is to bring 
him into contact and under the inspiration of other 
men of higher type than he is otherwise likely to meet." 
Dr. Parkhurst remarks, " While books can teach, per- 
sonality only can educate " ; and Henry M. Alden tes- 
tifies, " The best thing which Williams College did 
for me was to bring me within the scope of Dr. Mark 
Hopkins's inspirational teaching." President Thwing 
sums up the whole matter in saying, " A comprehen- 
sive inference, therefore, to be derived from these let- 
ters is that the best thing which the American college 
has done for its graduates is in giving a training which 
is itself largely derived from personal relationship." 
The same great underlying truth was cogently expressed 
by Garfield when he said, " A log with Mark Hopkins 
on its one end and James Garfield on the other is col- 
lege enough for me " ; and also by Dr. Willard Scott in 
saying, " Isolation with greatness is the greatest parent 
of growth." 

This, true in the college, is just as much in evidence 
in the lower-grade school. We can not be too careful 
in our insistence on great personality in the early 
awakening years of life purpose. A single hour in the 
day, a single year in the school career, so uplifted, is 
an education in itself. 

To be a teacher so endowed one must possess good 
health, a sunshiny heart, a love for God and for children, 
a vigorous mind, and qualities of capable leadership. 
Undoubtedly, some teachers are great in personality 
without one or more of these attributes, but few souls 
are so strong as to be great when otherwise constituted, j 

To be fresh and vigorous for such personal leader- 



THE FUNCTION OF THE TEACHER. 291 

ship, it is important that the teacher should not be worn 
out by advance preparation of lessons — the school hour 
calls for the very embodiment of potential energy. The 
minister who conies fresh from an hour or day of rest is 
fuller of personal magnetism^ the quality that tells in 
effective preaching, than the one who expends all his 
energy on manuscript work. So the teacher must have 
vital force, unimpaired by out-of-school work, in order 
that she may lift her pupils. It is essential also that 
the teacher should not be laden with slavish recitation 
work. There must be opportunity; first, for intimate 
association with pupils in kindred pursuits ; secobd, for 
the lighting of the pupil's life torch at the altar of in- 
spiration, by presentation of lofty personal ideals; 
third, for the communistic enjoyment of the discoveries 
of correlated labor. These essentials can obtain to only 
a limited extent under the slavish exactions of hearing 
recitations, marking time, and keeping up to the me- 
chanical assignments demanded by the graded system. 
They are, however, wonderfully effective in the school 
of laboratory practice. 

The graded system has been in force so long that 
many conscientious teachers feel that they are not doing 
their duty unless they lend themselves to its long-time 
practices. Now let us see what are the values of its 
leading exercises. 

Preparation of Lessons. — Can an immature person 
study well when distracted by the more lively exercise 
of the class recitation? Can he work with any correct 
habits of thought by the evening lamp,* interrupted by 

* " Artificial illumination is faulty at best, but, even in the best 
and most favoured homes, the elder group is apt to monopolize 



292 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

the demands of the home, the uncongenial exercises of 
others of the family, and the coming and going of con- 
stant difetractions ? How much is such work worth in 
pure educational value? The adult seeks a quiet 
library ror the accomplishment of work. Why should 
we expect more of an immature child? Is it not true 
that the teacher's contact with a pupil is largely centred 
in detective exercises; and that the pupil receives rel- 
atively little training in how to study, in how to make 
work easy, in how to proceed? The laboratory plan 
commends itself in that it is practically all study. The 
teacher's direction is centred on the study of the child. 
The habit which makes the interested, trained, inde- 
pendent, and effective student is the cardinal aim of 
the teachers policy. Is this not the major purpose of 
the school; and in the past has it not been largely a 
matter of drift ? Is it not possible that much valuable 
time of school life has been squandered because the 
children have not been systematically taught how to 
study ? 

The Recitation. — I am willing to accept, as a legiti- 
mate means of individual training, any recitation when 
it builds itself on individual interest, gives free oppor- 
tunity for individual advancement, and eliminates all 
dead time. But does the old-time recitation do this? 
Is every child in the class normally interested ? Is there 
free opportunity for each one to live up to the best that 
is in him, whatever the degree may be? Is there not 
always an honoured head to the class, and also a dis- 



the shaded drop-liijht or student lamp, while the schoolboy with 
his text-books is found somewhere in the outer circle." (McLean.) 



THE FUNCTION OF THE TEACHER. 293 

couraging tail? Are all the pupils of the class equally 
occupied during all the moments of the recitation ? Ad- 
mittedly, some are getting great value from their reci- 
tation; but are all so benefited at every point of the 
procedure? Are not some of the pupils carefully cal- 
culating their chances of being called on, with every 
encouragement to take a rest as soon as their turns 
have passed? Are not many learning skill in looking 
the teacher squarely in the eye, without hearing a word 
that is being said?/ Is there not encouragement to the 
shrewd practices of certain pupils, who know how to 
successfully get a chance to recite on easy passages and 
to throw the more difficult ones to their classmates; or 
to call out the talkative teacher, who can almost always 
be induced to kill time until the recitation closes? 
What are the ethical values of this kind of work? 

Or suppose the work is all honestly done ; how much 
of the work does each pupil recite on? What fraction 
of the recitation period is he actually reciting? Is not 
the pupil's entire day practically filled with recitations, 
with only a very small fraction of the time actually 
filled by the pupil's own recitation ? Is it not true that 
the best pupils are the ones most called on when the 
visitors are present? Does the recitation of the bright 
pupil, or of even the average one, fit the necessities of 
those at the foot of the class? Is there not a super- 
natural strain on the teacher in attempting to do what 
can not be done? Is not the recitation a fearful bore 
to the visitor who is forced to sit through its long, tor- 
tuous, and uninteresting passage ? If this is true in the 
experience of the visitors, who escape as soon as com- 
mon courtesy permits, what then of the pupils who 



294 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

spend the greater part of their school lives in its un- 
productive passivity and are supposed to be interested 
and normally profited when they are not? 

In contrast with this, the study time and the recita- 
tion hour are merged, in the laboratory school, into one 
common period of continuous work for each and every 
pupil. There is recitation, but it is incidental, not ob- 
jective. It fits every pupil at the point of his greatest 
need. It engenders a feeling of liveliest sympathy be- 
tween the pupil and his teacher. The platform and 
pedestal have disappeared. The teacher appears of 
" flesh and blood " in common with other mortals, and 
is all the more helpful because of kindred interests. As 
of Agassiz,* 

" His magic was not far to seek, 
He was so human " ; 

so also it is true of the teacher. There is opportunity 
for expression of interest, for sympathetic direction, 
and for inspiration. As President Harper has* well said, 
" The recitation is too expensive." We must find our 
way to an exercise of less passivity and of greater 
activity. 

The Examination. — The examination is certainly a 
very important exercise, but it must be for the child 
and not for the teacher. The teacher who can not de- 
termine the value of a child's work, without resort to 
a detective exercise, is not very much of an educator. 

* " Of the few great men I knew face to face, in my own edu- 
cation, I place first Agassiz, with his abounding life, his fearless 
trust in man and God, and his vital interest in everything that 
man or God had done.'" (Jordan.) 



THE FUNCTION OF THE TEACHER. 295 

The values of the examination are the opportunity 
to the child to apply the tri-square to his own work, 
to arrange his own acquisitions in a logical and corre- 
lated whole, and to express, not his weaknesses, but the 
best that is within him. In life the man is measured 
not by what he does not know, but by what he can do. 
In the same way the school, to be true to life, must 
give the pupil opportunity to arise to his best; and this 
is particularly applicable, in needed reform, to the ex- 
amination exercise. I admit that there may be a lim- 
ited value in the exercise where the books are all taken 
from the pupils, the maps reversed, and the teacher 
proceeds to run down the ignorance of the pupils, 
crammed and overstrung in anticipation of such super- 
natural ordeal; no matter how disappointing the re- 
sults may be to the teacher, when she discovers the 
pupils only look at the marks, and not at the work itself, 
when the papers are passed back. Doubtless there may 
be some little value, although with difficulty seen, in 
the exercise of the heavy-laden and conscientious teach- 
er, when in the cold of her room two miles from the 
school she proceeds, wearied and discouraged, to a 
post-mortem examination of this kind; but the results 
thereof can not for a moment be compared with the 
live personal exercises wherein the teacher sits down 
by the side of the child and then and there, with both 
pairs of eyes on the same warm paper, proceeds to 
point out in sympathetic ^ords the places of needed cor- 
rection and offers suggestions for the work's improve- 
ment. To this latter exercise must the examination 
come. In this there is no incentive to dishonesty. The 
work is alive. The pupil feels the influence of personal 
21 



296 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

value, accepts criticism in the spirit given, and while 
the work is warm, proceeds to its improvement. The 
work has become a purely personal matter and con- 
cerns no one else but himself and his teacher. The 
pupil's note-book, his developing thesis, and all his exe- 
cuted work then presents itself in his examination ; and 
in that examination he has a right to bring into contri- 
bution every help that may possibly be available. The 
pupil who in his examination, with his books all spread 
out before him, with the maps on the wall, and the 
library close at hand, can not be trusted to do his work, 
has not got very far along in his education — he is still 
in the primary grade. How does the man arise to his 
best in literary endeavour? In the library, surrounded 
by the best helps he can master. It is then he produces 
his best creations. In the same way must the school 
examination lift itself to this higher level. It must 
give opportunity for the pupil to express his strengths.* 
It will now be seen that in the school of laboratory 
procedure there is the more intimate contact between 
the teacher and the child — in other words, association; 
there is the more active turning of all endeavour on 
personal investigations — discovery; there is the co-or- 
dination of the study period, the recitation and the 
examination into a unified exercise wherein the pupil 
can arise to his best — education; and there is the light- 

* " Goethe, Schiller, the great «philologists and philosophers 
before 1820, were never examined. If youth did not learn at the 
university, the injury was theirs. There was some trust in 
instinct, nature, and free growth in the forest as well as in the 
monotonous rows of the nursery, and more freedom for both pupil 
and school." (Ilall.) 



THE FUNCTION OF THE TEACHER. 297 

ing of the torch at the altar of related endeavour — in- 
spiration. Is this not the great ideal of the educator 
— to make school life real; to give it human interest; 
to lift into the realm of discovery and creation? And 
how uplifting even to the little child, to express not 
simply the thoughts of other people, as Plato's slave, 
but to realize that his work also has a creational value, 
and that life is the better for his having lived. As Dr. 
Hodge says : " What an infinite delight it is for a child 
to tell a teacher something he did not know ; to find out 
something, not seen as a puzzle, the key of which the 
teacher holds, but something the teacher actually wants 
to know ! " Indeed, the child is very much like the older 
person at his best. Happy are those teachers who will 
condescend to thus live and learn with the children; 
and most imfortunate is the one who insists on seeing 
with one pair of eyes, probably spectacled at that, the 
infinite glimpses of beauty and of creation and of life 
that reveal themselves to a hundred eyes, eager, ex- 
pectant, and observing. 

This, then, is the function of the teacher — not to 
cram, to hear lessons, and to direct details — but to in- 
spire, to suggest, to utilize, and to bless. A policy of 
this kind would reconstruct the school, would bring 
salvation to the so-called dullard and the dunce, and 
would lift every pupil into an atmosphere of higher 
achievement and ethical culture. Its realization lies 
directly before the school of to-day. 

But the teacher, as the sympathetic friend of the 
child, owes him more than inspiration. The teacher 
must also be the child's counsellor and adviser. To 
this end systematic child-study has its high place in 



298 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

the school. The study of exceptional children, as out- 
lined by Bohannon,* is eminently practicable. It is 
also exceedingly serviceable, because it at once encour- 
ages the teacher to be on the outlook for needs in chil- 
dren. With shame be it said, many a child has been 
punished by the school when his only fault was that he 
could not see some things which others saw well; when, 
perhaps, his hearing was intermittent, and the very fact 
that he could hear well at certain times led the teacher 
to suppose that he could hear well at all times. These 
and similar difficulties are not self-detected, and oft- 
times the man or the woman never discovers the diffi- 
culties which limit a fuller usefuness. Any direc- 
tion of the teacher's attention to the finding of these 
exceptional cases leads to discoveries which must con- 
tinue and systematize the entire field of observations 
of children. The system of child-study in practice at 
the Worcester State Normal School is particularly 
adapted to this line of -investigation. On blanks, ever 
at hand, the teachers are encouraged to record every- 
thing of exceptional interest which they may observe 
concerning their school children. These returns are 
afterward grouped, and become the basis of much valu- 
able study later on; but the greatest value is in the 
habit given to teachers to be on the outlook for excep- 
tional needs. From this elementary beginning, child- 
study, under encouragement, goes forward to a more 
highly developed plan, which can not but become the 
basis of the scientific education of the child, f 

* Bohannon's Exceptional Children. Pedagogical Seminary, 
f The writer, in his work at Holyoke. Mass., reduced this plan 
of work to a card-index system, by which, in a moment of time, 



THE FUNCTION OP THE TEACHER. 299 

The value of a life book for each child, with colla- 
tion of data, from earliest infancy and systematically 
continued, is strongly emphasized. The excellent form 
prepared by Mrs. Charles E. Dickinson, for the use of 



valuable data concerning each one of six thousand children were 
at command. The first card in the series was devoted to Life Rec- 
ord, and gave the name of the pupil, his national blood, birth 
date, birthplace, parent or guardian's name, residence address, 
place (city or rural) where infancy had been spent, the names of 
school, grade, and teacher during each year of his school life, and 
circumstances of special history. A Health-Record Card gave 
name, age, general health, weight, height, past sickness and when, 
past injury and when, present difficulties, date, name of report, 
and adaptation of school plans. A Scholarship and Advancement 
Card reported special interests, special strengths, and special weak- 
nesses, and recorded special directions and subsequent history. 
An Attendance- Record Card reported only those who were excess- 
ively irregular in attendance, and gave reasons for such liability, 
frequently under encouragement. A Special Interest and Aims 
Card described more fully the individual trends, interests, and 
aims of pupils, and recorded adaptations in school plans. A Spe- 
cial Observation Card reported special traits of peculiar educational 
interest, such as cases of double vision, mirror writing, phenome- 
nal development in mathematics, arrested development, etc. An 
Unsatisfactory-work Card, with proper record, made the pupil so 
reported the subject of special diagnosis and treatment ; and so 
on, with several other cards of the series. These cards were only 
three inches by five inches, and were tabbed and in colours to 
call attention to special cases. 

Every pupil was represented in the Life Record and Advance- 
ment registrations. In order to make the work light for the 
teacher, the other reports of the series were made only on the dis- 
covery of something exceptional. It will be seen that some pupils 
by this means were represented by few cards, because their con- 
dition was fairly normal ; other individuals, sometimes by a dozen 
or more cards of varied data. As the exceptional reports were 
made only as the occasion demanded, there was no accumulation of 



300 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

the mothers of Denver, and also Miss Millicent Shinn's 
Study of a Child, are very suggestive. 

The study of exceptional cases makes a definite, 
simple, and practical beginning for scientific child- 
study in any school. Indeed, it is remarkable how a 
study of exceptional cases and phases gathers in almost 
all that is important for the scientific purposes of the 
school. However, it is desirable that this study should 
gradually become comprehensive enough to fully rep- 
resent every child. With the study of exceptional cases 
as a convenient beginning and nucleus, the work can 
easily and gradually be extended and enlarged until it 
comprehends all the characteristic data pertaining to 
each and every child. President Hall, in the round 
table conducted by him at the Saratoga meeting of the 
N^ational Educational Association, outlined some very 
important work in child-study, which the teachers 
might, with profit, incorporate in their work. This 
presentation by Dr. Hall may be said to be the very 
beginning of the child-study movement in America. 
To this, he and also Dr. Burnham, in subsequent years, 
have added some very important suggestions for the 

work for the teacher at any time, and the collection of vital sta- 
tistics was a growth from a small beginning to a collection of 
more than thii'ty thousand cards. Indexed as they were, any 
child's record could be found in a moment of time ; it was always 
subject to revision ; it was capable of indefinite expansion : and 
the cases needing special attention stood out in colours seciu'ing 
instant recognition. 

This reference is given merely for illustration. Perhaps the 
system should be more fully described. The plan could be easily 
enlarged on ; but this was intended to be of instant service and to 
avoid, in the massing, the loss of valuable individual returns. 



THE FUNCTION OP THE TEACHER. 301 

guidance of the work. Many excellent plans for child- 
study are operative in different schools of America.* 

The values of association and child-study have been 
discussed. It now remains for us to consider one more 
factor in the trinity of the teacher's function. It is 
that involved in the discovery of the child's future. 
Not that the teacher should determine the vocation 
for which the child is best fitted, any more than should 
the parent ; but it is the supreme mission of the teacher 
to hold up to the child a vision of life, so that the 
child, in his lack of personal experience, may have the 
data necessary for his own generalization and then the 
fostering care which makes possible the realization of 
dawning ambition. 

A system of school savings, with the definite object 
of sustenance during college training, should be a part 
of every school. Such a system would attract from the 
very entrance of the child into the school, or better still 
at birth, an accumulation of savings which, at com- 
pound interest, would do much toward guaranteeing 
a liberal education to every child. It would also be a 
centre of bequests, which would endow every child's 
college opportunity, the same as college chairs are now 
sustained. 

IIoiv about the markings of pupils? How are their 
records to &e kept? 

There should be no mechanical markings whatever. 
Pupils should be taught to work from pure love for the 
work and because it is right. All percentages, rankings 
in scholarship, honours, and other discriminating re- 

* L. N. Wilson's Bibliography of Child Study. 



302 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

wards are false to the spirit of education and should 
have no place in the school. Moreover, who made the 
schoolman so omniscient that he can justly take into 
consideration all the differentiating circumstances of 
life, when he attempts to mark on a mechanical scale 
the infinite variations of mind, which can not be meas- 
ured ? 

As to records, certainly the pupil is entitled to some 
definite credits on the books of the school. I have found 
it an excellent and all-sufficient practice to give each 
child at the end of the year, or earlier if he withdraws, 
a sheet of specifications telling in plain English just 
what work he has satisfactorily covered in each depart- 
ment of work. This advancement sheet becomes a 
definite basis for his continuation of work in any school 
where he may appear. A duplicate sheet, properly in- 
dexed, is left in the possession of the school. A collec- 
tion of these sheets, together with other child-study 
data described, in the process of years constitutes the 
life history of the child. 

What is the character of the card reports sent to 
the parents'? 

There are no regular reports sent to the homes. In 
the first place, the teacher and not the parent is re- 
sponsible for the school progress of the child. In the 
second place, if the parent wishes to ascertain informa- 
tion concerning the work of the child, the school office 
or school room is the proper place to gather such infor- 
mation. Or, if the teacher desires consultation Avith the 
parent, a visit to the home, or an invited conference at 
the school, will bring about a systematic relation not 
otherwise possible. Eegular conference hours are al- 



THE FUNCTION OP THE TEACHER. 303 

ways valuable. There are certainly many printed sug- 
gestions regarding food, sleep, exercises, etc., which will 
be much appreciated by the parent; but the school 
should never antagonize the home by unloading defi- 
ciencies and responsibilities which belong to the school. 
Ordinarily the most unhappy and non-ethical day 
in the school is the day when the usual monthly or term 
reports are given out. No teacher gives these out in 
the morning, because they would thus wreck the entire 
day. Usually they are passed to the pupils the last 
moment in the day's session. Wliy? Because the re- 
ports embody an element of injustice. The teacher, in 
her impotence, has attempted what can not be done — 
the measurement of creative mind with a scale that 
can not comprehend all the differentiating circum- 
stances of life. It is no wonder that there is rebellion, 
and that the teacher seeks to escape through opportu- 
nity for the school to recover its equilibrium overnight. 
The very fact that the reports of different teachers dif- 
fer so greatly is evidence of the ineffectiveness and in- 
justice of the plan.* 

* The writer once appeared at a large high school for lecture 
purpose, unfortunately or fortunately, on the day when the usual 
term reports were to be given out. In expectation of such visit, 
it had been decided by the faculty that it would be advisable 
to defer the giving out of the reports on that day, in order that 
the school might be saved from this non-ethical disturbance, and 
thus make a better appearance. As a student of education, the 
writer found something of special interest, and concluded to re- 
main over another day. The faculty met, as one of the teachers 
afterward said, and decided that the reports had best be postponed 
another day. Innocent of all knowledge of this, the visit was 
protracted over a third day, when the affair became so ridiculous 



304 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

Would you have no competitive exercises'? 

Yes; all life is full of competition; but it does not 
thrive best in the ease where all people do the same 
thing in the same manner and in the same time. The 
pupils in the school always know who are doing the 
best work, and are actuated accordingly. This is the 
natural competition of life. In this school it is free 
from overtension and bitter rivalry, and it is healthful 
in kind. 

Granting that this plan of work would become very 
much more interesting to the pupil, how about the in- 
terest to the teacher? 

There is always an inspiration to a teacher in origi- 
nal work. It is not teaching itself that takes the life 
out of the teacher, but routine, the lining up of classes 
for uniform results, and the requirement of results 
where there is little interest. President Eliot, in his 
article on uniformity in schools, remarks: " I do not 
know how a woman teacher of a class in a grammar- 
school grade, who goes year after year through the same 
prescribed routine with pupils previously made as uni- 
form as possible, can maintain an intellectual fresh- 
ness and enthusiasm in her work for more than five or 
six years." Gladstone used to say that the road lead- 
ing into London which killed the most horses was the 
road of the dead level. Give teachers opportunity to 
climb the heights and their work will respond in initi- 
ative, in vigour, and in inspiration. " The letter kill- 
eth but the spirit giveth life." 



that the whole matter was explained and the reports were issued, 
with the result which the teachers anticipated. 



THE FUNCTION OF THE TEACHER. 305 

Should there not he more men teachers in the 
schools ? 

The schools will always be taught largely by women, 
and properly so, because of woman's finer intuitions, 
greater faithfulness in details, and exceeding patience. 
However, the child should come in contact with both 
kinds of mind and character. This applies, more or 
less, to all grades of instruction, but particularly to 
that of the adolescent period. Besides, teachers of 
opposite sexes are corrective one of the other; they are 
complemental. Men, as a rule, are more original in 
planning; women, as a rule, are more successful in 
execution. 

What opportunitij shovld he given teachers for per- 
sonal and professional improvements 

The school should give teachers the most liberal 
opportunity. 1. Escape from routine and opportunity 
for the delights of original work. 2. The federation of 
the teachers in the development of original plans. If 
there is value to the pupil in the presentation of some- 
thing which the teacher did not know, there is also in- 
spiration to the teacher in being given initiative. 3. 
The school itself should have classes for the training of 
teachers, made eminently possible by the work being 
departmental and by our plan of centralization. 4. 
Teachers should be paid salaries enabling them to make 
professional improvement, but these salaries should be 
discriminative. 5. There should be opportunity to gain 
from the experiences of the best schools in other cities 
through observation; or better still, by association in 
the same school with co-workers who represent, in their 
selection, the best personnel and the best methods of 



306 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

such other cities. 6. Teachers of special merit shoukl 
be given their seventh or sabbatical year for rest or 
observing travel, on full or part salary. Think of the 
compensating returns to the Chicago Institute from 
sending selected teachers abroad for a year on full 
salary! The way to get the best value from teachers 
is by giving them opportunity and appreciation. The 
city which does the most for its teachers is the one 
which has the best schools. It is the old story of the 
nobleman's treatment of the two brothers, Date and 
Dabitur. 



CHAPTEE XIII. 

THE EE-ENFOECEMENT OF EVOLUTION. 

If, in the long struggle of the past, life from its 
lowest forms has reached anything of elevation and 
improvement, it has ever been by the innate strengths 
of individuals and the circumstances which have fa- 
voured their development. This, from earliest begin- 
nings of evolution, has been true of all the forms of 
life antedating man. It is also the fundamental 
principle which has given us our finest flowers and 
fruits, and our choicest examples of domesticated ani- 
mal life. The culture of man presents no exception, 
but, with multiplied re-enforcement, illustrates the 
same universal law in the elevation of universal life. 
But man, while starting in the school of Nature, has 
frequently wandered away into the night, reaching, 
however, with the succession of better days, upward 
into the light. 

The old Hindu philosophy, with all its cold, un- 
productive learning, cared nothing for the individual. 
Its pantheistic doctrines taught that man must sub- 
merge his personal identity and be lost in the mass. 
The reform of Buddha brought no light, but sank the 
man still deeper in his self-abnegation. 

In the old civilization of China, as in the present, 
• 307 



308 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

there was no liberty^ no sjiontaneity. Dynasty after 
dynasty passed away, during which no individual ever 
saw his sovereign, but still lived on in passive and grov- 
elling submission. 

In old Japan, however, this was not so. The recog- 
nition of individuality, from the remotest historical 
ages, explains the strength and genius of this remark- 
able people. Says Uchimura: " We were not taught in 
classes then. The grouping of soul-bearing human be- 
ings into classes, as sheep on i\.ustralian farms, was not 
known in our old schools. Our teachers believed, I 
think instinctively, that man {persona) is unclassifi- 
able, that he must be dealt with personally — i. e., face 
to face, and soul to soul. So they schooled us one by 
one, each according to his idiosyncrasies, physical, men- 
tal, and spiritual. They knew each one of us by his 
name. And as asses were never harnessed with horses, 
there was little danger of the latter being beaten down 
into stupidity, or the former driven into valedictorians' 
graves." 

The Hebrews made education compulsory, and per- 
haps preserved their original identity more than any 
other people. However, they opposed the loss of the 
individual in the mass, as evidenced by this rule in the 
Talmud: "If the nnmber of children does not exceed 
twenty-five, the school shall be conducted by a single 
teacher; for more than twenty-five, the town shall em- 
ploy an assistant ; if the number exceeds forty, there 
shall be two masters. . . . After the age of six receive 
the child, but load him like an ox; however," continues 
the Talmud, " children sbould be punished with one 
hand, but caressed with two." 



THE RE-ENFORCEMENT OP EVOLUTION. 3o9 

Spartan education aimed to produce the best indi- 
vidual, but entirely for strength of body. 

Athenian philosophy sought the highest culture of 
the mind ; but " every free man stood on the backs of 
nine slaves." For the tenth man who was held aloft, 
the best culture in reading from Homer, in writing, 
grammar, gymnastics, mythology, and music was pre- 
sented. Socrates's method was entirely to originate 
individual investigation and reasoning, to which he 
added the inspiration of approachableness and associa- 
tion. Plato's Republic, while eliminating all but the 
superior souls, was essentially for the best culture of 
the state through the enrichment of the individual. 
Says Plato, " Is not that the best education which gives 
to the body and to the soul all the beauty and all the 
perfection of which they are capable ? " Aristotle, 
sometimes said to have been the most learned man who 
ever walked the earth, while like Plato he planned only 
for an aristocracy, nevertheless, for his limited few, 
presented an education of health which led to the 
highest efficiency of the individual. 

Quintilian remarks, " The desire of learning rests in 
the will which can not be forced," and '' we can scarcely 
believe how progress in reading is retarded by attempt- 
ing to go too fast." Seneca taught, " The end is at- 
tained sooner by example than by precept " ; and Plu- 
tarch declared that " the sovil is not a vase to be filled, 
but rather a hearth which is to be made to glow." 

The early Christians held the doctrine of the liberty 
and equality of all men ; that the soul is free and owes 
allegiance only to God. 

Agricola wrote, " If there is anything which has a 



310 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

contradictory name it is" the school, the Greek name for 
which means leisure, and the Latin, ludus, play; but 
there is nothing farther removed from leisure and 
play." 

Sacchini urged, " Do not let the favouring of the 
higher classes interfere with the care of meaner pupils, 
since the birth of all is equal in Adam and the inheri- 
tance in Christ." 

Eabelais wished his pupils to study " through play- 
ing and recreation " ; and exclaims, " Why ! women and 
girls have aspired to the heavenly manna of good 
learning." 

]\Iontaigne insisted that the child should exercise 
choice, and that Latin should be taught by the mother- 
tongue method. He said, " Knowledge can not be fas- 
tened on the mind, it must become part and parcel of 
the mind itself "; and also complained, " There is a 
great tendency in the scholastic world to underrate the 
value and potency of self-education." 

" In all the operations of Nature," said Comenius, 
" development is from within," and " Everything in the 
intellect must come through the senses. (Nihil est in 
intellectu quod non prius fuerit in sensu.) " 

Plautus exclaims, " An e3^e-witness is worth more 
than ten thousand ear-witnesses." 

Nicole insisted that " the purpose of instruction is 
to carry forward the intelligences to the farthest point 
they are capable of attaining." 

Fenelon said: " The less formal our lessons are the 
better. ... I will give no rules at all; it is sufficient 
to give good models. ... I have seen certain children 
who have learned to read while playing," If a given 



THE RE-ENFORCEMENT OF EVOLUTION. 311 

study was distasteful to the young Duke of Burgundy, 
Fenelon passed immediately to something else. 

Locke insisted that all studies should be " attractive 
studies." 

Eousseau's Emile was to live a life of Nature. " I 
hate books," said Rousseau. " They teach us merely 
to speak of things we do not know. . . . Let him 
always be his own master in appearance, and do thou 
take care to be so in reality. There is no subjection 
so complete as that which preserves the appearance 
of liberty. It is by this means even the will is led 
captive. , . , Everything is good as it leaves the hands 
of the Creator; everything degenerates in the hands 
of man." Of Emile, now twelve years, he says: " Now 
is the time for labour, for instruction, for study; and 
observe, it is not I who make this choice; it is pointed 
out to us by Nature herself. . . . Things! Things! I 
shall never tire of saying that we ascribe too much 
impoi'tance to words. With our babbling education 
we make only babblers." 

Condillac taught that the child in his education 
must do " that which the race has done." 

Kant contended: " The aim of education is to give 
the individual all the perfection of which he is capable. 
. . . The best way to comprehend is to do. What we 
learn the most thoroughly is what we learn to some 
extent by ourselves." 

Pestalozzi's school was life, with natural objects and 
no books. He it was who insisted that the soul must 
be developed through " what is within," and that " the 
individuality of the child is sacred." " Man," said Pes- 
talozzi, " it is Avithin yourself, it is in the inner sense 
22 



312 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

of your power, that resides Nature's instrument for 
your development. I myself learn with the children. 
Our whole system was so simple and so natural that 1 
should have had difficulty in finding a master who would 
not have thought it undignified to learn and teach as 
I was doing." 

Froebel gathered up the teachings of the past and 
put into operation a great system of education, the cen- 
tral principle of which was " self-activity." The kinder- 
garten, of which he was the founder, is a noble expo- 
sition of the harmony which may correlate, in educa- 
tion, the individualistic and the socialistic interests of 
man. 

Eoger Ascham, sometimes called the Father of 
School Methods, says: " Beat a, child if he dance not 
well and cherish if he learn not well, ye shall have him 
unwilling to go to the dance and glad to go to his 
books." 

Herbart left a priceless legacy in his doctrine ef in- 
terest. He also taught: " The teacher ought to make it 
a point of honour to leave the individuality as un- 
touched as possible, to leave it the only glory of which 
it is capable — namely, to be sharply defined and recog- 
nisable even to conspicuousness, that the example of 
the individual may not appear insignificant by the side 
of the race itself and vanish as indifferent. ... It is 
the individuality and the horizon of the individual 
determined by opportunity which decide, if not the 
central, at least the starting point of advancing 
culture." 

Shakespeare sums up a world of philosophy when 
he says: 



THE RE-ENFORCEMENT OF EVOLUTION. 313 

" No profit grows where is no pleasure taken ; 
In brief, sir, study wliat you most aft'ect." 

Milton writes, " Thus to be taught in school to ap- 
pear to know and to speak as if his knowledge was real, 
when he is conscious it is not, he is trained into the 
habit of untruth." 

Humboldt asserts, " Governments, property, religion, 
books, and home are but the scaffolding to build men. 
Earth holds up to her master no fruit but the finished 
man." 

Says Richter, " Individuality is everywhere to be 
spared and respected as the root of everything good." 

Herbert Spencer declares, " The discipline which 
does good to the mind is active, not that in which it is 
passive "; and, " Any piece of knowledge which the 
pupil has acquired, any problem which he has himself 
solved, becomes, by virtue of the conquest, more thor- 
oughly his own than it could else be "; also, " Humanity 
has progressed solely by self-instruction." 

Says Mills, " The worth of the state in the long 
run is the worth of the individuals composing it." 

The great Agassiz, at his summer school on the Isle 
of Penikese, taught: "All knowledge is individual. It 
must be your own and not that of anybody else. Your 
having a firm memory will not suffice; you must assimi- 
late, as you digest food. We must find out facts for 
ourselves, and when we teach we must teach our pupils 
to find out for themselves. It is the bane of our schools 
to confound men with knowledge. By this system a 
whole class of powers is allowed to be dormant." 

Horace Mann remarks, " Unfortunately, education 
among us consists too much in telling, not in training." 



314 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

Quick asserts, " Spontaneity and self-activity are 
the necessary conditions under which the mind educates 
itself and gains power and confidence." 

Says Dr. William T. Harris: " Inasmuch as the child 
is self-active, and grows only through the exercise of 
self-activity, education consists entirely in leading the 
child to develop this power of doing. Any help that 
does not help the pupil to help himself is excessive." 

John Dewey: "The unity of the self is the will. 
The will is the man, psychologically speaking. . . . 
Only by being true to the full growth of all the indi- 
viduals who make it up can society by any chance be 
true to itself." 

President Charles W. Eliot: "The main interest in 
the teacher's life is to be found in studying and devel- 
oping the infinitely various mental and moral qualities 
of his pupils. . . . True success consists in making 
children as unlike as possible." 

President David Starr Jordan: " The growth of in- 
dividualism in education is the most promising feature 
in the social outlook of America." 

President William R. Harper: " Individualism, co- 
ordination, and association are the keynotes to future 
progress along educational lines." 

President G. Stanley Hall : " The only safety lies in 
the study of and better adaptation to the nature and 
needs of childhood. Strength lies in individualization. 
Progress is now in differentiation." 

Is not development along the lines of differences 
and of strengths the ladder on which all evolution has 
climbed to its present heights in the plant and animal 
worlds? Does not the history of education show that 



THE EE-ENFORCEMENT OF EVOLUTION. 315 

the same operating law has been the foundation of all 
progress? Has there been any other way in which 
achievements have been made in invention, science, ^rt, 
or industry? Does not evolution reach its supreme 
height in the doctrines of Christianity which establish 
the claim that the soul is free, that character is made 
only by individual choice, and that the expectation from 
different individuals is according to talents intrusted 
" to every man according to his several ability ? " 

Are we not now ready to formulate our definition 
that education is the evolution of the ego in response 
to environment? 



CHAPTEE XIY. 

MUNICIPAL DIFFICULTIES AXD ORGANIZATION". 

These specifications are applicable, with modifica- 
tions and adaptations, to a system of schools of what- 
ever size, large or small. In the serious consideration 
of the plan, certain municipal questions will appear 
which may as well be here asked and answered, and 
perhaps best in personal form. 

Would not the cost of the individual system he much 
greater than in schools as noio conducted'? 

The cost would not necessarily be greater. The in- 
dividual system equalizes the attendance of pupils in 
the various rooms. By the present plan it is impossible 
for a small seventh or eighth grade to relieve an over- 
full second or third grade. Frequently a greatly over- 
crowded building has several rooms where the attend- 
ance is light. By individual organization the attend- 
ance is distributed so that the various rooms have num- 
bers more nearly proportionate to working needs. Also, 
the smaller classes disappear, because these few pupils 
can find longer periods of time while working with 
pupils of different advancements in a common labora- 
tory hour. Again, the laboratory method makes short- 
cuts in the school life, so that there is the possibility 
of saving the expense of one or two years in the ordinary 
316 



MUNICIPAL DIFFICULTIES AND ORGANIZATION. 317 

education of the child. There is one item of greater 
cost, and that arises from many pupils remaining in 
school longer because the work better fits their indi- 
vidual needs. This item would be considerable. 

Would not the reduction in the number of pupils 
assigned to each teacher {I believe you recommend twenty- 
four as an ideal number) greatly increase the cost of the 
schools^ 

The present number of pupils to the teacher is too 
large by any plan. As already intimated, the individual 
plan can and does handle as many pupils well, as is 
done by any other plan, excepting that, with the indi- 
vidual plan, the activities are more normal and show 
needs more readily than is the case as schools usually 
are. Again, many schools in their kindergartens, high 
schools, and other grades here and there, do not even 
now have more than twenty-four pupils to the teacher. 
It is simply a question of just extension of the same 
policy to other equally deserving pupils in the schools. 
The schools of Switzerland and several other countries 
in Europe do not have more than twenty-four pupils 
to the teacher. Why can not America do as well? 

Your plan calls for expert teachers in every grade; 
for the vnuchsafing to every child the same quality of 
instruction he might have in the high school or the uni- 
versity. Would this not be very expensive? 

The measure is advocated purely in the interests of 
economy. 

The plan of one-story buildings in order to get natu- 
ral illumination from overhead, ivithout shadow and 
with equal distribution to every pupil, may be very sug- 
gestive; hut how could a city get room for these one- 



318 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

story structures. As I understand it, our present system 
of shy-scrapers has been forced hy inahility to get suffi- 
cierit ground. 

The horticulturist has no trouble in getting room 
for his one-story green-houses. The man who raises 
poultry on a large scale is equally successful. In Paris, 
which is a city of solid humanity six stories high, the 
schools have much larger ground space than in America. 

You advocate a system of evening schools. It seems 
to me we have all we can do now to find money enough 
for the day schools. 

Why should we not have the evening schools? If 
one hundred or one thousand young people can attend 
better in the evening, why are they not entitled to 
as much accommodation as an equal number of those 
who are now cared for in the day school ? Why should 
not those who labour all day to support others receive 
as much consideration at the hands of the city as those 
who are supported by others ? Given the buildings and 
the equipment already provided, the plant should reach 
the highest possible degree of service. With equal op- 
portunity to do good, the evening school can be main- 
tained at small cost compared with the day school. The 
same thing is true of the vacation school. 

But is there much demand for an evening school^ 
Will the young people attend^ 

That depends entirely on the kind of school pre- 
sented. The city of Springfield, Mass., on opening its 
doors to evening high-school pupils, found the evening 
enrolment equalled the day enrolment the very first 
year. 

You propose that the high school shall offer its ex- 



MUNICIPAL DIFFICULTIES AND ORGANIZATION. 319 

tension courses; indeed, that it shall be a community 
school. Is this expedient? 

Why not? There are hundreds of older people in 
the community who would prize the helpfulness of the 
school in bringing to them opportunity otherwise ex- 
ceedingly limited. The enormous sums of money now 
being expended in high-school buildings and equipment 
can have their justification in no other way. The school 
must comprehend the entire educational needs of the 
community, and do all the good it can. 

/ understand you have said that the high school in 
the near future ivill assume the worh of the college. 
Will this he wise? 

The larger high schools will eventually assume the 
work of the college. Their equipment even now justi- 
fies this. Whenever the number of pupils in the high 
school is so large that the post-graduate work of its 
students can be performed at less expense at the home 
than by sending them away to some central college, 
then such diversion of expense on the part of the State 
will be entirely legitimate and expedient. For instance, 
I know of a city of one hundred thousand inhabitants 
the high schools of which graduate this year 266 pupils. 
With this large number why can not the city furnish 
the college education of these students at home cheaper 
than they can get it by going elsewhere? This, how- 
ever, will only apply to the larger high schools. The 
smaller schools certainly must still send their pupils 
away to college. 

What about the book question? Do you believe in 
free books? 

In new communities, where the constituency is flue- 



320 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

tuating, yes. In settled communities, the schools 
should furnish many library and reference books; but 
the pupil should own his own standard text-books as a 
matter of permanent possession, to be purchased by 
him, or else presented by the school when the study is 
completed. The material used by the pupil, and also 
books of transitory value, might still be furnished by 
the school. The school should also suggest lists of 
books for the child's individual library. The pupil 
who graduates from the school without the ownership 
of a book is unfortunate. 

I am told that you advocate the scliool oiuning its 
own 'printing establishment. Why? 

Given the coterie of experts as recommended in our 
plans, there should be a more effective means of prepa- 
ration of helps for the use of pupils, and also for the 
encouragement of original experiments, than the pres- 
ent plan presents. I do not mean that the school should 
print its own books ; but there should certainly be more 
liberal opportunity for certain experimental endeav- 
ours on the part of the teachers to find a convenient 
expression. Then, the school should issue many com- 
petent suggestions to the home. Yes, the larger school 
should also be a publishing institution. This, however, 
would not necessarily be added cost. 

To what extent would the people appreciate a school 
so organized? 

Given sufficient time for effective operation and the 
fruitage of results, there is no question concerning the 
popular favour attending such a school. The American 
people are looking for results. Whenever they see the 
products of the school are better health, more interest 



MUNICIPAL DIFFICULTIES AND ORGANIZATION. 321 

in study, freedom from evening work, shorter time in 
the covering of the courses of study, and more evidence 
of the continuous student, the people will not be slow 
to express themselves. 

''It seems to me there is little question^' remarks 
some municipal executive, " concerning the superior 
advantages of a school so conducted; and I am surprised 
to find that its expenses would not he materially greater. 
But I am particularly interested in the more radical 
features involved in the idea of a general school farm 
or park, where, with the massing of facilities and oppor- 
tunities, you advocate the centralization of all the 
schools of a town or city. Now what would be the cost 
of such a plant ? " 

The cost would not be so much as might at first be 
supposed. In the smaller city it certainly would be no 
greater. If provision could be made for the plan in 
the early growth of a city even larger, the savings would 
be very great. But the project is not a hopeless one 
in even the developed city. For instance, here is a city 
needing buildings at the present time, the erection of 
which would require the issuing of bonds for half a 
million dollars. This amount and the revenues arising 
from the sale of valuable properties in the heart of the 
city, would no doubt meet all, or nearly all, the costs of 
the school farm and a complete series of new buildings 
erected according to the plan proposed. The reduced 
costs in running expenses, arising from centralization, 
would abundantly make up the difference. But there 
would be no difference to be made up, excepting as the 
city would probably deem it wise to erect better build- 
ings than the average ones now housing the children. 



322 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

What would he the size of the farm for a school 
plant of this size? 

Preferably not less than ten acres for each thou- 
sand children ; for a city of one hundred thousand peo- 
ple, not less than two hundred acres. 

Is it absolutely necessary, under this plan, that all 
the schools should he moved to a single plant f 

By no means; but the advantages arising would be 
so superior that all children should be equally benefited. 
In a city of one hundred thousand inhabitants there 
might be four school parks or farms, providing for five 
thousand children each, instead of one for twenty thou- 
sand children. Or the parks of the city might be util- 
ized for school purposes. The centralization of all 
schools on a single plant, however, would be far more 
economical and it would not be specially inconvenient. 

How would you meet the expense of the electric-car 
service, with which you propose to gridiron a city and 
transport the children? 

By the city owning and operating its own car serv- 
ice; or by contract for school service at certain hours; 
or by reserving in the franchise the privilege of free 
transportation of school children. This could be as 
easily done as to require a corporation to make a three- 
cent fare for adult persons, as is now being done in 
some cities. The ear service would be heavy at certain 
hours of the day, but the cars could be run in trains, 
with the children in transit protected by closed rails. 

But how about the time lost in going to and from 
school? 

It is probable that the average part of a city of 
100,000 inhabitants could be reached from the school 



MUNICIPAL DIFFICULTIES AND ORGANIZATION. 323 

in fifteen or twenty minutes, and any part, excepting 
very remote ones, in thirty minutes. Children probably 
spend nearly that time in transit to the school even 
now. Besides, children attending the Horace Mann 
School or Felix Adler's School in New York, or Colonel 
Parker's Chicago Institute, or Pratt Institute in Brook- 
lyn, do not feel that even an hour is too much time to 
spend in going to a superior school. Pupils are willing 
even now to pay car-fares to a central high school, be- 
cause of the greater advantages arising from centrali- 
zation. In the same way, the advantages would be bet- 
ter in any grade of school. Besides, the ride itself is 
a good exercise. What a happy sight the school trains 
would be each day to people who ordinarily fail to ap- 
preciate the magnitude of school interests! It should 
be remembered also that the children would be given 
their dinners at the school, and thus make only one trip 
each way. 

Hoiv about the number of men required to run such 
a car service'? Twenty thousand children would require 
from fifty to one hundred trains of three or four cars 
each. 

If the city owned and operated its own car line it 
could be understood the regular service would be light 
during the limited time of heavy school transits. Or 
the other help of the city could be directed in this chan- 
nel at specified hours. Or, as our proposed plans con- 
template a post-graduate department, the young men 
in college training could be partly supported in their 
education by this moderate service. But the service 
would necessarily not call for so many trains. Some of 
the children would live near the school farm. The city 



324 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

population would soon centre around the school, ex- 
cepting in cases of wealthier families. Again, as our 
several schools would now be better classified, the hours 
of session would vary so greatly as to permit the dis- 
tant cars to make two trips, and the near ones three 
or four trips. A little system and experience would 
soon solve all the difficulties. In the cases of towns and 
the smaller cities, where past history shows the best 
schools have ever been, there would be no great difficul- 
ties of this kind to be solved. 

But how about the cost of the school dinner'? Would 
this not he a very great expense'? 

Certainly, but not an added expense to the parents, 
for these children must be fed somewhere, and with cen- 
tralization it could be done much cheaper and more 
conveniently than in so many homes. 

Would not the massing of children together he a 
serious objection? 

Not at all; we even now have many instances of 
one thousand children in a single building, and that 
on a piece of ground scarcely larger than the foun- 
dation of the building. Think of the pure air and 
other advantages when that number of children have 
ten acres! 

Your plan, however, provides for the children of a 
city of 100,000 inhabitants — that is, approximately, 20,- 
000 children. 

For purposes of illustration that is true, but not 
all on one piece of ground of ten acres. Even in that 
case, the massing would not be greater than it now is. 
The plan proposed calls for an approximation of ten 
acres for each one thousand children. If the city has 



MUNICIPAL DIFFICULTIES AND ORGANIZATION. 325 

5,000 school children this would demand four separate 
sections of a common tract, each ten acres or more, and 
carrying each its series of quadrangle buildings, adapted 
respectively to the particular functions of the play- 
school, the primary school, the intermediate school, or 
the high school. Should the school population be 10,- 
000, 15,000, or 20,000, each series of quadrangle build- 
ings would be proportionately increased; or, for the 
lower schools, duplicate plants could be built adjoining 
the central plant, or in different parts of the city. Think 
of the free play room, the pure air, the abundant sun- 
shine, the gardens and the miniature world presented 
by such a plant! Or even supposing the massing of 
from 5,000 to 20,000 children should be accomplished 
on smaller space, it would be infinitely better to accom- 
modate them on a single plant where everything could 
be absolutely sanitary, than to mass them, as is generally 
the case now, in crowded streets, against aggregations 
of older people, alongside of breweries, stables, and 
other objectionable places. But such massing would 
not be under the same conditions; for with our school 
plant each child would have ten times as much indi- 
vidual space as he now has. If it is a good thing for 
children to escape from the city to the country for a 
time now and then, it certainly would be a proportion- 
ately better thing for them to have their entire school 
life amid such delightful surroundings. 

What would he the advantages in the equipment and 
grading of pupils? 

The advantages would be very great. At the pres- 
ent time the expense is very large, because each build- 
ing must have its separate equipment, and of a different 



326 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

kind for each grade. With centralization one half of 
this money would equip the schools better than many a 
college now is. In classifying and grouping the pupils 
there would be the possibility of fitting almost any 
need. 

There are also other very superior advantages. The 
schools would have the benefits of absolute sanitation, 
with adequate drainage, abundant pure air, purifying 
sunshine, wholesome water, and medical care. The park 
would constitute a miniature world. The equipment 
would be so centralized as to enormously lift every de- 
partment of work. The pupils would be grouped ac- 
cording to kindred tastes in a way not possible under 
the present plan. All school work would take on the 
delights of personal discover3^ The teachers would 
be in sympathy with an original plan of education 
which would call out the best within them. The oppor- 
tunity of teachers of associate interests to meet in fre- 
quent conferences, or with the superintendent or super- 
visors, or to see other model work, would be abundant. 
The administration would be centralized and rendered 
exceedingly effective. The gardens would be a cardinal 
feature of the school. The school park, in short, would 
be the pride of the city and the Mecca of educational 
pilgrimages from all over the world. 

How about the school government? Would it not 
be largely military? 

Not necessarily so. It would be purely a question 
of the director-general and his versatility. Some of 
the largest schools in the world are delightfully con- 
ducted with very little apparent discipline. The fact 
is, children readily respond to the right course of action 



MUNICIPAL DIFFICULTIES AND ORGANIZATION. 327 

when given responsibility and trust. As a rule, a large 
school is more easily governed than a small one. But 
in our school the children are not really massed more 
than under usual conditions. Beyond that the ability 
of the director-general is very much exercised even 
in our present schools, but so widely scattered in its 
operations that it does not become manifest. There are 
plenty of schoolmen who could direct the operations 
of 20,000 school children on a school plant of this char- 
acter with perfect ease. 

Still you admit, do you not, that such a school sys- 
tem would cost more money'? With so many other de- 
partments of city government, such as street service, 
lighting, hridge-huilding, police department, water de- 
partment, pauper department, fire department, and legal 
department, each calling for money, how can this addi- 
tional cost for schools be met? 

How can any other department be compared with 
the school department? Is not the entire life of the 
world centred in our children ? Is not our first care for 
their best culture? More than this, are not all these 
other agencies, important as they are, accessory to the 
one great fundamental question involved in the high- 
est interests of the children ? How can these other de- 
partments be put on the same level ? And yet, strange 
to say, it is usually much easier to get the best of mod- 
ern appliances for these other departments than for the 
school. 

Yes, the school of the twentieth century will cost 

more money; but it should be our pride that this will 

be the case. There never was a time in the history 

of the world when the people were willing and anxious 

23 



328 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

to do so much for their children as now. Think of the 
sacrifices of fathers and mothers to-day that their chil- 
dren may be happy, as typed in expenditures for pianos, 
bicycles, better clothing, and general opportunity — 
things which a generation ago were not even dreamed! 
The father who toils in the shop, office, or store, the 
mother whose brain and fingers are busy all the day, 
know no sweeter reward than that this loving sacri- 
fice is made that their children may be rich. It is the 
old, old story of the world being lifted by vicarious 
sacrifice. Face to face with the promise of better things 
in the children's education, the people are ready for any 
improvement or cost which may come. What, after all, 
are we living for, if not for our children? Why toil 
and sacrifice and expend if not for the greater future 
of the child? The people are not tired of taxation for 
schools, 'but they are tired of taxation without returns* 

What are the greatest hindrances to the realization 
of an ideal school^ 

The changeable constituency of school boards, the 
slavish organizations of schools almost entirely for the 
home teacher, the large number of children given to a 
single instructor, the gradation of teachers by years of 
service, the unbusiness-like method of scaling the sal- 
aries with no recognition of special merit, and the large 
amount of routine work forced on the school executives. 

* When the writer was once spending several delightful days 
in visiting Dr. Hailmann's magnificent schools at La Porte, Ind., 
he asked a citizen on the street how the people met the expense of 
such good schools. " Why," replied the citizen, " the schools of La 
Porte cost more than any others in the State of Indiana, and it is 
the pride of the people of La Porte that it is so." 



MUNICIPAL DIFFICULTIES AND ORGANIZATION. 329 

Are not our school huildmgs among the best in the 
world? 

These are not essentials but accessories. Buildings 
are the easiest things to get. As a rule, so much 
money is spent in buildings that there is nothing left 
for the school. There is many a citizen who can see a 
fine school building who can not see a child. 

But, our superintendents; ive have no trouble in get- 
ting capable men for this important office. 

President Eliot, in a personal interview, remarked 
to me, " The graduates of Harvard University are not 
seeking the superintendencies of schools." President 
Harper, of the University of Chicago, has also said, 
" The fact that our superintendents of education, 
whether of nation, state, or county, have little or no 
authority and are chiefly statisticians, is a sufficient 
commentary on any alleged system." It is also true 
that the high-school principal, as a rule, is more of a 
man of culture than the superintendent of schools. The 
superintendent, under the present organization of 
schools, has not time to be very much of an educator. 

What do you thinlc of life tenure of office for teachers f 

Teachers, in the discharge of faithful duty, ought 
to be protected by having their appointment central- 
ized in the hands of those who know their work and 
who will advise them at any time. As far as tenure is 
concerned, the poorest schools in this country, at least 
in the cities, are those which approach most nearly to 
the teachers' life tenure of office. 

In what way should school boards be chosen and or- 
ganized? What is the best form of school control? 

The best system of school control is in Colorado. 



330 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

There, excepting in East Denver and in small districts, 
the school board consists of five members, each chosen 
for five years and by direct vote of the entire city. The 
school election can not be on the same day as a political 
election. As only one new member is elected each year, 
ordinarily four-fifths of the board is composed of ex- 
perienced persons. The women have the right of fran- 
chise in Colorado, and very largely exercise it in school 
elections. This removes the school elections from poli- 
tics, avoids radical changes, and rests the school con- 
trol largely with those who are most interested. 

To this plan I would add the appointment by the 
Mayor of a nominating committee of one hundred rep- 
resentative citizens, with equitable representation to all 
parties and creeds; the presentation of ten names for 
the selection of one by the voters at Australian ballot; 
and thirty days of legal announcement. A civic league, 
organizing all the best men in the community for 
effective enforcement of the law, and pledging each one 
to honour a call to office should occasion arise, would 
be a valuable adjunct. Such an organization now ex- 
ists in Brookline, Mass. 

Who should appoint the teacher, the school hoard 
or the superintendents 

With an organization like that recommended, the 
appointment of teachers should be made by the school 
board on the superintendent's nomination. The super- 
intendent always needs a cabinet of advisers. On the 
other hand, the competent superintendent, under this 
plan, would always have his policy and wishes respected. 

What should he the character of the superintendent 
needed for such a school system f 



MUNICIPAL DIFFICULTIES AND ORGANIZATION. 331 

The superintendent should be a man of sterling- 
character and great natural love for children. He 
should be well educated, particularly in physiology, 
neurology, and psychology. He should have little to 
do directly with the business details of the school; but 
officials having these important matters in hand should 
be under his appointment. He should have ample time 
for personal and professional study, for mingling with 
people, and also for inspection of school systems else- 
where. His offices should be in the centre of his school 
system, with adjacent conference rooms, libraries, and 
psychological laboratory. He should have assistance 
sufficient to enable him to devote himself entirely to 
the larger problems of the schools, with the greater part 
of his time spent in the presence of the children. The 
correlation of other administrative work should be so 
intimate as to give instant supply of every detail in 
order to carry into effect every improvement or cor- 
rective initiated by the superintendent. There is noth- 
ing which so hampers a superintendent in the develop- 
ment of original work as inability to foresee or depend 
on details of equipment and other accessories at the 
exact time of pupils' need. Given to the superintend- 
ents of America freedom from political, designing, and 
inexperienced environment, and opportunity for wide 
observation, personal study, immediate correction of 
weakness, and effective extension of plans, it would 
be wonderful -how the change would accrue in the 
rapid improvement of schools. 



CHAPTER XV. 

SOMETHING FOR THE PHYSICIANS TO THINK ABOUT. 

" Give me health and a day, and I will make the pomp of 
emperors ridiculous." (Emerson.) 

The educator who wishes to reform the public- 
school system does not need to go very far out of his 
way to get the generous assistance of the medical pro- 
fession. Significant it is, indeed, that of the 35 emi- 
nent physicians who answered Dr. Stuver's question,* 
" Do you think our present comprehensive course of 
study is best calculated to develop the highest physical 
and intellectual powers of the child?" 2 replied yes, 
33 no, and 1 only was doubtful. The purpose, then, of 
this discussion will not be to convince the doctors that 
the school system is wrong, but to present a reorgan- 
ized plan for their consideration ; for, as Horace Mann 
has well said, " Where anything is growing, one former 
is worth a thousand reformers." 

Is it too ambitious to say that Chadwick's state- 
ment f that " a city may be built with any given mor- 

* How does our School System influence the Health and Devel- 
opment of the Child? By Dr. E. Stuver, of Fort Collins, Colo. 

f Address on Health, by Edwin Chadwick, C. B., in Transac- 
tions of National Association for Promotion of Social Science. 
332 



SOMETHING FOR PHYSICIANS TO THINK ABOUT. 333 

tality rate," may be paraphrased to read that a school 
may be built with almost any degree of health? I am 
perfectly aware that there are many primordial condi- 
tions of health over which the school has little control ; 
but, as a schoolman, I am also ready to admit that the 
school has never tried to ameliorate many of these con- 
ditions. The capable leadership of the school, with 
helpful meetings for conferences and with printed sug- 
gestions concerning the food, sleep, clothing, exercise, 
and general welfare of children, will meet with a re- 
sponse and appreciation from the home little dreamed 
of by the schoolman who knows not the home. Health 
is very much a matter of command. It is the natural 
thing to be well; the unnatural, to be sick. People do 
not have health because they do not command it. As 
long as the prize-fighter can go into training and, as 
the result of a few weeks of careful work, absolutely 
command his health, so that when he enters the ring 
the glow of conscious health will not recognise even 
the possibility of a defeat, it certainly is time for people 
who profess better things to pause and consider what 
they are doing to control their own health and that of 
their children. Good health is not the result of chance, 
but of obedience to physiological law. " The wages of 
sin is death " is never more fully realized than in the 
case of the body, which is the Temple of God; and, con- 
versely, " length of days and long life " are the reward 
of those who keep the commandments. 

Therefore, it seems reasonable to premise that the 
value of a school is determined by the extent to which 
it promotes good health as the fundamental condition 
of effective work and happiness ; that the child has an 



334 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

inalienable right to expect, not simply that he may gain 
his education without the sacrifice of physical health, 
but that the school will guarantee to him good health 
as the product of his education. 

The position, then, taken by this discussion is that 
the prime requisite in the education of a child must be 
health; that good health is subject to command; and 
that the school must be measured by the extent to which 
it contributes directly to this realization. 

With this postulate the contention then is that the 
growth of the child in body and mind must be free. 
Certainly there is the need of the sunshiny presence, 
the wise counsel, and the capable direction ; but the fun- 
damental operations of the growing child must be 
spontaneous. 

The child must not be robbed of his natural instincts 
for play, and his work will always be more educative 
when related to play. 

In his food he must be freed from hot breads, pas- 
tries, and confections, and fed the elements best cal- 
culated to make him strong. This will not speedily be 
his portion, unless there is a better correlation of the 
home and the school. There is no one place where 
modern science has made so little contribution as in 
the kitchen, and yet the home is earnestly seeking ca- 
pable leadership which it has not found. 

The child must have his longer hours for sleep, and 
in his sleep must not be disturbed by worry carried 
over from the pressure of the day. Camerer has 
shown * that a child of ten years is 700 grammes lighter 

* Donaldson's Growth of the Brain, p. 83. 



SOMETHING FOR PHYSICIANS TO THINK ABOUT. 335 

and 2 centimetres taller in the morning after a night's 
rest, and that during the day he is losing in stature and 
growing in weight. The child's full rest for this nor- 
mal recovery from daily stress must be protected. In 
addition to this, the practice of rushing off to school 
with little breakfast, to be followed frequently by a 
cold, inadequate lunch at the noon hour, can not be 
too severely condemned. 

The centralized school plant which I have pre- 
sented will probably suggest some things which can be 
immediately incorporated into the policies of existing 
schools as local conditions will permit. If not, then the 
question ought to be forced by the adoption of the 
larger plan, which will guarantee these important pro- 
visions. The plan provides a campus of ten acres or 
more for each one thousand pupils. What a shame it 
is that the modern school has no place or time for the 
old-fashioned free-play recess ! Can the abortion of five 
minutes, with restrained movement in the school room, 
be accounted as a recess? Most certainly not. Of the 
105 prominent educators and physicians answering Dr. 
Stuver's question, all but four strongly favoured the 
open-air recess and spontaneous play. But even the 
old-fashioned recess can be gloriously lifted by the gen- 
eral play with the association of teachers, as in the 
schools of Andover. Then the return once more to con- 
tact with the soil and care for growing and living things 
— what a field offered by the school gardens! Pure air, 
abundant and free on the playground, and taken in 
at higher levels, flooded without draft through the 
rooms, to be removed again in such quantity that each 
child may have his 3,000 cubic feet per hour; an ha- 



336 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

bituation to a lower temperature of approximately 60 
degrees (the British standard) instead of 70 degrees, 
which is more generally the case in this country; and 
an abundance of cleansing and purifying sunshine — 
what desirable factors in the growth of the healthy 
child! Says Dr. Galton: * " Second only to air is light 
and sunshine essential for growth and health; and it 
is one of Nature's most powerful assistants in enabling 
the body to throw off those conditions which we call 
disease. Not only daylight but sunlight; indeed, fresh 
air must be sun-warmed, sun-penetrated air. The sun- 
shine of a December day has been recently shown to 
kill the spores of the anthrax bacillus." 

Our school plans for more life in the open air and 
for the cleansing bath of sunshine to every part of the 
building. It also provides for a healthful site and per- 
fect sewerage ; a dry and thoroughly ventilated sub- 
structure ; walls that are impervious to moisture and 
yet breathe ; an inner finish that can not absorb and 
can be easily cleansed; floors of hardwood, closely 
matched, treated with beeswax and turpentine, free 
from dust and constantly purified ; walls tinted in soft 
colours ; pure distilled water ; individual cups and indi- 
vidual towels. 

The school rooms are all one story, and have no 
stairs. The different sections are connected with con- 
tinuous arcades, closed in winter and open in summer. 
The general quadrangle faces the southeast, so that 
every wall is sun-bathed. The illumination of the room 
is from overhead, and through milk-white, translucent 

* Galton's Healthy Hospitals, p. 198. 



SOMETHING FOR PHYSICIANS TO THINK ABOUT. 337 

glass. This gives indoor work the natural light, flood- 
ing the entire room. There are no harsh shadows. 
Every child gets his adequate portion of light. There 
are no dangerous reflections from the blackboard, be- 
cause the angle of reflection can not reach the child. 
There is no tendency to spots on the cornea from per- 
verse light nor absence of perfect illumination. 

"Would there not he too much light V inquires 
some one. " It seems to me I know cases which would 
he greatly injured hy your -flood of light." 

Cohn and Kotelmann both say that there can not 
be too much light. It must not be forgotten that our 
light is now overhead. This is the natural light, from 
which the eye is protected by the lid. There is no 
shield to the eye from lateral light admitted at low 
levels, as is the case in most school rooms. There 
may be some diseased eyes which can not stand full 
light. These are largely the products of previous living 
in the dark, and should receive special attention. 

The paper on which the books are printed is a light 
yellow, of soft background, and entirely without gloss. 
Books printed in type less than pica are not used in 
this school. There is also a discarding of excessively 
fine work. Writing and other exercises, requiring fine 
co-ordination, are not permitted until after the larger 
areas of the brain have approximately reached their 
maximum development. 

The physical training is in the hands of experts. 
There is a careful examination of each pupil to note 
his physical condition; watchful care is exercised to de- 
tect weaknesses or exceptional needs ; and daily medical 
inspection wards off the entrance of disease. The 



338 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

school works on the hypothesis that almost every dul- 
lard, dunce, or depraved child is largely so because of 
physical defects or malformations; and special atten- 
tion is given accordingly. The furniture is adjustable 
and of varied kinds; and great care is given, in every 
department of the work, to get away from the practices 
which make man so much a sitting animal. Individual 
advice is given all special cases as to foods of greatest 
individual value; and, in every case, pure water is in- 
sisted upon. The school, also, has its own baths, where, 
at prescribed hours, pupils may have instruction in 
swimming and other facilities. 

The course of study is built on the hypothesis that 
the order of the development of the brain must be fol- 
lowed; that there are certain nascent periods when 
budding strengths make formal work easy; and that 
there is no gain in forcing these periods. It therefore 
recognises that the infant is safest in the care of the 
mother. Approximately, the years of five, six, and 
seven are given to the play school; eight, nine, and 
ten are given to the alphabetic school, where the child 
gets his first acquaintance with the alphabets of read- 
ing and numbers and his acquisition of skill in the han- 
dling of working tools; eleven, twelve, and thirteen are 
termed the years of full childhood, and are given to 
a general survey of the field that will enable later choice 
to be more intelligent; the year fourteen is a year of 
relaxation; fifteen, sixteen, and seventeen are full of 
the overflow of adolescent energy, which must be occu- 
pied and given wide choice and freedom for personal 
convictions; and the college, with its greater altruism 
and need of general culture, and the university, with 



SOMETHING FOR PHYSICIANS TO THINK ABOUT. 339 

its specialization, follow. It will be seen (Chapters VII, 
IX, X) that there is much contact with Nature, books 
are subordinated to their proper place, there is much 
individual choice, and that the general course of study 
is subject to unlimited individual variations. 

While the school recognises the essential values in 
careful physical training, it also holds that there are 
intrinsic physical values in proper mental activities. 
The history of all greatness goes to show that the nor- 
mal activity of the mind plays its important part in 
determining the longevity of different individuals. The 
old theory that brain work must be attended with phys- 
ical deterioration is not countenanced. The healthiest 
child or man is the one who has the poise which comes 
from regular hours of mental activity, interesting pur- 
suits, proper habits of work, and the delights of per- 
sonal accomplishment. The work of the school, then, 
in all its play, physical training, study, investigation, 
and construction, is a unit in the furtherance of the 
personal health of each individual. 

Our school recognises the right of the pupil to be 
absent on necessity, to come for a part of a day only, 
or to be irregular in days. When the pupil is sick, he 
has relaxation ; when he returns convalescent, he is not 
pressed to keep up with his class, and doubly pressed 
to make up what he has lost. There is no unnatural 
penalty for weakness. He may take the full course of 
study, or less or more; and he may do the work in 
his own time. 

" But," says Dr. Antiquarian, " if you have no home 
study, what will occupy the time of the pupils during 
the evening hours? It seems to me they will run to 



340 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

social excesses, which will be more harmful than the 
effects of evening study." 

The studies of Dr. Tuckerman * do not show this to 
be the case. It is a great mistake to suppose that all 
the education of a child is comprehended in that offered 
by the school. The child needs time for social recrea- 
tion, for home duties, for attendance on church, lec- 
tures and musicals, and for voliintary readings and 
creations. There are infinite values in education out- 
side of the school. As a rule, the audiences which greet 
the most instructive lecturers contain no high-school 
students, because the pupils are led to believe that they 
can not afford to give up a lesser for a greater value, 
and therefore are educated to minimize the great edu- 
cational opportunities outside of the school. Dr. Ed- 
ward Everett Hale, as he told me, one day said to 
his son, " Wendell Phillips is to speak in Boston to- 
night; I would like to have you go and hear him." 
" But, father," said the son, " I have not time. I have 
80 lines of Virgil for to-morrow's lesson and I must get 
them." " My son," said the father, " what are 80 lines 
of Virgil to the privilege of hearing Wendell Pliillips? " 
N"otwitlistanding all that could be said, the boy held to 
his preparation for the school; " and thus," said Dr. 
Hale, "for the paltry value contained in 80 lines of 
Virgil my son missed hearing the greatest orator of 
his day." 

It is also true that the school child is usually 
crowded for time. Under the unfavourable circum- 
stances of evening study he must spend at home twice 

* Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, vol. cv. 



SOMETHING FOR PHYSICIANS TO THINK ABOUT. 341 

as much time in doing a piece of work as would be re- 
quired in the better school. He carries the worry of 
his work to his bed, does not recover in the night per- 
fectly from the fatigue of the day, and goes to the 
school in the morning mortgaged in strength, when he 
should be fresh and vigorous. Too frequently the child 
gets his lessons on Sunday, which, in the ethics of the 
home, is not considered work, because it is from a 
book. He thus, perhaps by desultory work which the 
school encourages, works more hours in the day than 
the adult man, and frequently more days in the week. 
It is by reliance on the greater conditioning values 
of better health that our ideal school does in 
short hours what before has taken much greater 
time. 

Beyond all this, L believe, under proper restrictions, 
is the rest and change which come from social recrea- 
tions; and in the opportunity for much spontaneous 
home work, growing out of the suggestions of the school 
and associate agencies. 

" I am very glad," remarks Dr. Progressive, " to 
hear you say this. There certainly has been a large 
amount of poor health among school children, which, 
whether caused or not by the school, ought to be cor- 
rected by the school. Dr. Tuckerman, in his investi- 
gations, to which reference has been made, after a care- 
ful study of the health of school children as affected by 
home study and social recreations, says: ^111 health 
among scholars increases directly as the amount of time 
spent in study beyond school hours and inversely as 
the amount of recreation taken.' " 

" Do you mean to imply," inquires some worthy 



342 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

clergyman, " that good health is an essential condition 
of better morals ? " 

Not an essential condition but a very helpful 
one. With all resj^ect for the work of the Sabbath-' 
school, and I yield to no man in my estimate of its 
worth, I am ready to say that character is better made 
in the kitchen than in the Sabbath-school. Undoubtedly 
there are exceptional cases where great beauty in moral 
worth has been attained by people in poor health; but 
poor health is abnormal, and, as a rule, does not condi- 
tion the child or man for moral excellence. Dr. John- 
son used to say, " Every man is a rascal when he is 
sick." 

" I do not agree," says Dr. Patent Medicine, " with 
all this doctrine about the differentiations of different 
children and their various needs. Now, my practice is 
to give them all a dose out of the same bottle, and if 
that does not cure, to keep it up until it does." 

" And I," exclaims Dr. Olden Times, coming to the 
rescue, " bleed them all alike, or give them a good-sized 
pill of blue-mass. I tell you there is nothing like some- 
thing drastic to bring people around when they are a 
little out of order." 

" And I," says Dr. Procrustes, " always try to fix 
my patients so that they can walk and move with some 
balance. If one leg is too short, I stretch it a little. If 
the other is too long, I whack it off. That's the easiest 
way of giving balance to people. There is nothing like 
equipoise, balance, and symmetry." 

Perhaps that is the easiest way. At least it is 
the treatment which children too often receive in the 
schools. 



SOMETHING FOR PHYSICIANS TO THINK ABOUT. 343 

" I like very much," says Dr. Twentieth Century, 
" the plans wliich have been presented. If education is 
to be true to its mission, it must comprehend the whole 
man. If it is to lift man to any high results, it must 
take time to build its foundations well. If education 
and medicine are ever to be scientific they must be in- 
dividual. It seems to me not unreasonable to think that 
the child has a right to expect, not a discriminating 
rank, not a false honour, not a diploma which means 
little, but good health as the first instalment of his 
qualifying education. I like very much the statement 
made by President Hall: '^ A ton of knowledge bought 
at the expense of an ounce of health, which is the most 
ancient and precious form of wealth and worth, costs 
more than its value. Better Tolstoi's kind of liberty, 
or the old loiightly contempt of pen and book work as 
the knack of craven, thin-blooded clerks; better idyllic 
ignorance of even the invention of Cadmus, if the worst 
that the modern school now causes must be taken in 
order to get the best it has to give.' " 



24 



CHAPTEE XVI. 

THE ETHICAL BASIS OF THE SCHOOL. 

" The real democratic American idea is, not that a man should 
be on the level with every other man, but that every man shall be 
what God made him without let or hindrance; that there shall 
be no prejudice against him if he is high and that no disgrace 
shall attach to him if he is low ; that he shall have supreme pos- 
session of what he has and what he is ; that he should have liberty 
to use his powers in any proper direction." (Beecher.) 

Character is not the product merely of Bible read- 
ing and attendance upon the Sabbath service, although 
these are intrinsically important and contributive, but 
of every thought, word, and act of daily life. If we 
wish to lift the children of the home and the school 
into an atmosphere of ethics, we must start on the basis 
that every exercise of the school is potential in oppor- 
tunity for higher living and higher realization. Says 
Henry Withington: "Every word of our lips, every 
thought of our brain, every act of our feet, every 
emotion of the heart, and every vision of our fancy, 
might be looked upon as so many dancing leaves in an 
autumn wind, tossed hither, rising now. floating there, 
but in the end all falling to the ground, all soaked to- 
gether in a cold clammy moss by the dews and rain of 
successive nightfalls, all melted together at last in the 
heats of trial and crowded together under the pressure 
344 



THE ETHICAL BASIS OF THE SCHOOL. 345 

of adversity, and cooled together in the winters of deso- 
lation, till in the end they make the rock which we call 
Character." 

With this lofty conception it is not well to check 
the child at every point of spontaneous action ; it is not 
well to break his will; it is not well to have him rest 
under the realization that the detective's eye is ever 
on him, and to bring him up under the morbid concep- 
tion that he is constantly doing wrong. Froebel says 
" the unconsciousness of the child is rest in God." And 
so also it is a good thing for any child or man for ever 
to realize that he is a son of God. The school room, 
therefore, should always be a bright, sunny place, 
illumined by the teacher's smile, vitalized by the teach- 
er's inspiration, ennobled by the pupil's best work, and 
baptized by the teacher's benediction. To leave a child 
under the frown of the law, Avith all his inner vindictive 
nature stirred within him under an attempt to break 
his will, is to leave his soul in hell for that length of 
time. He should be lifted out of himself at the first 
possible moment ; and this can only be done by the win- 
ning presence of the great sunshiny life, which tempers 
Justice with mercy and offers the guide-star of hope. 
How important, then, it is that those who are chosen 
to teach should be masters of their own lives, and, by 
the permeation of human sunshine, should be able to 
establish in the school room that atmosphere which 
types the spirit of God! 

Every exercise of the school room should be full 
of ethical potentiality. If it is not, it has no place in 
the school. For this reason, the programme should 
be flexible. Because oi this, also, the keys to interest 



346 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

should be individual. If one key will not answer, an- 
other should be tried at once. Within every heart is 
a germ of divinity, which will respond to life when given 
its own culture; but, to any great extent, this culture 
is not possible under the incarceration of uniformity. 

It is a good thing to realize that good health is 
normal and poor health is abnormal. Almost all crim- 
inals are defectives physically. The human organism 
is such a bundle of reactions and reflexes that it is al- 
most impossible to have moral wealth without physical 
health; at least, the latter largely conditions the former. 
The child needs life in the sunshine. He needs refresh- 
ing sleep and well-selected, wholesome food. He needs 
normal hours for w^ork. He needs an abundance of 
opportunity for pent-up energy to express itself in play, 
and in that which is related to play. Good health must 
be recognised as the basis not only of intellectual en- 
deavour, but also of moral achievement. The normal 
body must be the dwelling-place of the normal soul. 
Attention to matters of health, therefore, can not be 
too important; for, as President Hall has well put it, 
" He who is true to his body, which is the temple of the 
Highest, can not be unfaithful to his soul." 

The mainspring of character is motive.* Wlien evil 
thoughts arise from any other causes they are misfor- 
tunes; when they follow motive they are crimes. The 
realization that character is not a chance product, but 
the direct result of volition, can not find a place too 
early in our schools. To that end there must be ban- 
ished from the schools all unnatural incentives. Per 

* Search. Motives, Manual Two, Los Angeles Public Schools. 



THE ETHICAL BASIS OF THE SCHOOL. 347 

cents, prizes, markings, and discriminating honours are 
all rewards which are false to the best ethical interests 
of the child. The child who is taught to work for such 
an incentive is bribed, be it even in committing to mem- 
ory a passage of Scripture; he is bought with a price, 
and to that extent debauched and demoralized. He is 
not lifted into an atmosphere of ethical influence. For 
the time being he spurts well, but he is seldom a con- 
tinuous worker after his false objective is gone. The 
pupil must be trained to work because all work is its 
own reward, eontributive to his own and the happiness 
of others. If work can not be accomplished with this 
high motive, it were better left undone. 

There is ethical impulse in happiness. Every child 
has a heaven-born right to be happy. To this end the 
basis of the child's gradation in the school should be 
the place where he can be the happiest. Shall it be 
with the teacher who sours everything she touches? 
By no means. Shall it be with children years younger, 
as is often the case in schools? Certainly not; he 
should be grouped more nearly with his playmates. 
The details of their work may be heavy, but its sugges- 
tions will be much. If the pupil is slow in pace, shall 
he be discouraged by being plunged into difficulties 
beyond his comprehension ; or, if he can travel rapidly, 
shall he be encouraged to idleness and have the ambi- 
tion taken out of him because he must wait for others 
to catch up? Is there ethical promise in the dead ex- 
ercise of the school, in which many of the class are 
killing time while a few are reciting? Is there hope 
to the stranded pupil who realizes that he is at the 
foot of the class, to be always laughed at ; that he is 



348 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

a miserable misfit; and that the sooner he is out of the 
way the better? Is not a misfit the greatest problem 
in all the realm of ethics? 

On the other hand, is there not resurrection to the 
child in the realization that the work perfectly fits his 
working needs, that his place is just as important as 
that of any other worker, that he also is a discoverer 
and contributor to the happiness of others, and that 
the offering he brings to the altar for the benediction 
of his teacher is the very best thing which he can then 
produce? To a child thus placed and thus occupied 
life takes on meaning at every step. He is conscious 
of a welling up within him of personal happiness. He 
is proud of his work, and he promises himself that to- 
morrow's achievements will be greater than to-day's. 
He is not measured by the capabilities of others, and 
he realizes that the school is just. 

Every child is entitled to all the opportunity he can 
properly utilize. There is life and strength in living 
up to the top of one's endeavours ; but these tops are 
not the same for all persons. The pupil in the school 
is entitled to the privilege of producing the best that 
is within him. If he can do much, that much is his 
privilege; but if he can do only little, he has a divine 
right to do that little well. If uniformity should gov- 
ern all the operations of men we should have no great 
things in science, literature, industry, or art. If the 
school is to be life, it must conform its practices to life. 
Every rise to greatness follows opportunity, and every 
failure to present opportunity surrounds man with an 
atmosphere which violates all the laws of ethical 
growth. 



THE ETHICAL BASIS OF THE SCHOOL. 349 

To grow strong, to take pride in one's work, and to 
deserve reward in the school, in life, or in heaven, man 
must have opportunity for choice. In no other way can 
character be made. To have the steps of one's pro- 
cedure mapped out by the school, to follow a given 
course of study with little opportunity for personal de- 
cision, is to render weak the character which the school 
should make strong. At every step of the way the pupil 
needs opportunity for self-government, for the election 
of the steps of his procedure, for the decision of that 
which entails consequences. There is little virtue in 
being good if one has not had opportunity to do wrong. 
No enduring strength to resist temptation comes ex- 
cepting as the soul has been made strong through con- 
flict. There is no pleasure in study, in discovery, or 
in achievement, excepting as one reaches results by 
determinative volition. The very consciousness of 
choice involves also the realization of responsibility; 
and the greatness of all responsibility is that it is in- 
dividual. 

Then, in the school, the child should have opportu- 
nity for choice at every step of the way. From the 
teacher he should have opportunity, counsel, direction^ 
and encouragement; but from himself must come the 
initiative which is to produce results. In school gov- 
ernment he must be his own dictator, judge, and jury. 
In discovery he must be original as far as he can go. 
In the selection of courses of study and in the pur- 
suance of his work he must early come to decision; 
for in no other way will his work be vitalized by pur- 
pose. 

Is not this the fundamental plan in all divine 



350 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

economy? Does not God give to every man opportu- 
nity and presence, with the necessity for responsible de- 
cision at every point of the way? Are not the great 
fundamental doctrines of God's sovereignty and man's 
free will perfectly consistent and complemental ? Could 
strong, trustworthy, and laudable character be made in 
any other way? If, then, this is the divine plan, how 
can the school improve upon it? 

The true worth of all character is measured in terms 
of service. What is a man's life worth if not to enrich 
others ? So the product of the school is valued at what 
it is worth to the community; of the individual, at what 
he can offer his fellows. The pupil trained as an indi- 
vidual unit has a clearer vision of life. He knows the 
steps by which man climbs to greatness. He realizes 
the weight of personal responsibility. He is interested 
most in the community, because he has something 
with which to enrich it. He has not been trained in 
isolation, as many would think. His choice, his steps, 
his rate of progress, and his discoveries only have been 
individual. He has been federated at every step of 
the way with the group, the class, and the school; 
but, in his federation, he listens all the more interest- 
edly because others have something fresh to offer him, 
and he is heard always with the greater delight be- 
cause what he himself contributes has the greater 
value. 

Association, opportunity, motive, choice, and re- 
sponsibility — these are the great cardinal factors in the 
making of character. The pupil trained therein, and he 
can not begin too early, is strong for all the respon- 
sibilities of citizenship and of life. Whenever a child is 



THE ETHICAL BASIS OF THE SCHOOL. 351 

given a piece of work which is absolutely his own, that 
piece of work if well done, however little or great it may- 
be, becomes to him a source of conscious pride which 
may contain the salvation of his entire after-life. That 
pupil, so trained through the processes of years, be- 
comes the trustworthy citizen. " Is not that the best 
education,"' says Plato, " which gives to the mind and to 
the soul all the force, all the beauty, and all the perfec- 
tion of which they are capable ? " 

So in this great country of ours, as Dr. Edward 
Everett Hale has so well put it,* " every child is a 
prince " to be trained for responsible leadership. Napo- 
leon, in his contemplated training of the young king 
of Eome, summoned the wisest men of the nation to 
plan an education wliich should be fitting the royal 
pupil. Aristotle was intrusted with the training of 
Alexander; and to Fenelon was given the education of 
the young Duke of Burgundy; but in this country, 
where every man is his own priest and king, we have a 
greater prince to be educated. Is any price too great to 
pay for his culture and training? Shall we not equip 
him for the great responsible place he is to occupy in 
the field of human action? 

" How shall we train our prince ? To rule his land, 
Love justice and love honour. For them both 
He girds himself and serves her, nothing loath. 
Although against a host in arms he stand, 
Ruling himself, the world he may command; 
Taught to serve her in honour and truth. 
Baby and boy and in his lusty youth. 
He finds archangels' help on either hand. 

* Hale's Education of a Prince. Chautauquan, vol. xx. 



352 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

" The best the world can teach him he shall know, 
The best his land can give him, he shall see, 
And trace the footsteps where his fathers trod ; 
See all the beauty that the world can show. 
And how it is that freedom makes men fre.e, 
And how such freemen love and serve their God." 

Note. — For a fuller treatment of this important subject by the 
writer, see article The Ethics of the New Education, Educational 
Review, February, 1896 ; also in pamphlet form. 



CHAPTEE XVII. 

IN CONCLUSION. 

And now, good friend and critic, to this constructive 
presentation two or three reminders should be added. 

If this discussion has in any of its parts seemed 
severely critical, such criticism has been aimed at the 
weaknesses and not at the soul of the public-school 
system. I love the public schools and champion their 
great potentiality. Undoubtedly they have accom- 
plished much good, but they could do more. 'Not for 
a moment would a single straw be added to the burden 
of work now carried by faithful teachers ; but to these 
teachers would be given opportunity for growth, initia- 
tive, essential results, and the delights of high think- 
ing. ) The attempt is here made not merely to point 
out "the weaknesses of our great educational system, 
but, by way of illustration, to offer something construc- 
tive for its improvement. The public schools are not 
ideal. 

The plan which has been presented is not the idle 
dreaming of a theorist, but the gathering togetner of 
the best things in the ripe experiences of many schools. 
These different factors, as has been evidenced by abun- 
dant illustration, have been, in almost every instance, 
thoroughly tried. It only remains that they should be 

353 



354 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

put together in a single structure, and the result will 
be An Ideal School. 

In your consideration of these many specifications, 
I beg you will not view them only in part, or the object 
you may see will not be a very practical or finished 
structure. Some of the features are so radical that 
they must' be seen in their entire correlations in order 
to be fully understood. If the plan is anything, it is 
comprehensive; and the illustrations, it is hoped, are 
sufficiently abundant to make clear every point pre- 
sented. I beg of you, therefore, that you will exam- 
ine these specifications in their entirety before you 
proceed to pass judgment on any one or more of 
them. 

Perhaps the section which will be the most criti- 
cised is the argument for the centralization of all a 
city's schools on a single park; but the twentieth cen- 
tury has not yet passed, and stranger things than this 
have happened in the history of the world. Doubtless, 
our cities, as they are now controlled, will not be in 
haste to adopt such an ideal plan ; but some city or 
town may adopt the plan, as some are even now approx- 
imating it, and to that community will come a profound 
influence and leadership in solving the question, How 
shall we overcome the economic losses attending the 
trend of life from the country to the city? A cen- 
tralized school plant is not essential to the application 
of the educational principles involved in the discussion 
of methods of instruction; but it is advocated for con- 
sideration wherever approximately possible as an ex- 
ceedingly desirable adjimct in the unfolding of a com- 
plete plan of ideal education. At the very least, the 



IN CONCLUSION. 355 

argument for larger school grounds, in some form, will 
stand. 

I repeat once more what has been already several 
times stated: this is not a method excepting in the 
barest outlines; but citations of many methods have 
been made for the purpose of illustrating essential prin- 
ciples. Methods must vary endlessly with the personnel 
of teachers, circumstances, subjects, grades, objectives, 
etc. Attention is called to the fact, easily overlooked, 
that nowhere in these pages is this called The Ideal 
School — but x\n Ideal School. 

These plans are applicable, with proper modifica- 
tion and adaptation, to a school system of any size. 
However, I am not so sanguine as to think that they 
will meet with any immediate or wide adoption 
excepting as they will perhaps work their way un- 
recognised and unconsciously into the evolution of 
school policies. An ideal school can not be built at 
present within the borders of the public-school system. 
The conditions are too changeable. Plans can not be 
suflEiciently continuous and comprehensive. The envi- 
ronments are such that aims, purposes, and results are 
too easily misunderstood. The planner can not select 
in order to effect. There can not be opportunity for 
quick readjustment and correction of weaknesses, which 
is absolutely essential in the performance of original 
work. It takes time to build a school even under the 
most favourable conditions. 

An ideal school, then, for its full fruition and ef- 
fective demonstration, must be built outside the public- 
school system and as a philanthropic enterprise. Its 
control would then be continuous; its purposes better 



356 AN IDEAL SCHOOL. 

understood ; its plan more comprehensive ; its structure 
more corrective; its budding and flowering and fruit- 
ing more true to their seasons. Such a school would 
be an ideal for all the world. It might not see its 
plans bodily reduplicated, but it would leaven and re- 
construct in time the entire educational system. It 
would be a practical demonstration, impossible under 
the environments of the public-school system, of heights 
to which schools have never yet reached; and it would 
establish claims which would demand a recognition in 
the educational policies of the world. The building and 
maintenance, for a year or two, of such a system in a 
town or city, or part of a city of sufficient size to make 
the school comprehensive, would establish a line of 
ideals which would make impossible return to the usual 
system. 

What a great opportunity is this for some multi- 
millionaire! In these days when the generosity of the 
rich man is so expressing itself in the enrichment of 
types of higher institutions already largely determined, 
what a great field is this for some one, happier in 
thought than the rest, who wishes to go to the bottom 
of things and upbuild an institution which will lift all 
educational life, because it is genetic and presents ideals 
which, in time, will transform the school policies of 
the w^orld! 

Why should only the higher institutions receive the 
encouragement of philanthropy and endowment in their 
original work? Almost every great educational move- 
ment of the day comes from outside the formal system 
of schools and is ingrafted only on the demonstration 
of its possibilities. The greatest field in all education 



IN CONCLUSION. 357 

is that which comprehends the care and culture of chil- 
dren, and yet this is but poorly developed. An ideal 
school, built under favourable conditions, for the dem- 
onstration of great possibilities in the better education 
of children, would lift the college and the university; 
but above that it would reconstruct the entire system 
of the education of the young. 



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